O objetivo desse trabalho foi desenvolver um compósito cerâmico de zircônia-grafeno para aplicação odontológica. Este estudo avaliou o efeito do pó de partida, concentração de grafeno e da temperatura de sinterização sobre as propriedades mecânicas (dureza e tenacidade à fratura) do compósito desenvolvido. Para isto foram sintetizados os pós de Y-TZP a partir de soluções de óxido-cloreto de zircônio e cloreto de ítrio na proporção desejada de 3mol% através da rota de co-precipitação em solução de hidróxido de amônio seguido por uma série de lavagens em água, etanol e butanol com posterior destilação azeotrópica, secagem, moagem e calcinação. O grafeno foi obtido a partir da exfoliação química de grafite pelo método de Hummers [40] modificado por Marcano [39], o que resultou em um gel acastanhado que foi submetido a lavagem por centrifugação, secagem e desaglomeração em almofariz de ágata, resultando, por fim, no óxido de grafeno. Uma segunda etapa foi o processo de redução química com ácido ascórbico para obtenção de óxido de grafeno reduzido, um pó de coloração escura que foi adicionado à Y-TZP para a obtenção do compósito nas diversas concentrações (em mol%) que foram estudadas: (0,01%, 0,05%, 0,10%, 0,50%, 1,00% e 2,00%). Os pós foram caracterizados por termogravimetria, difração de raios X e espectroscopia (FT-IR). Os espécimes foram confeccionados em matriz metálica cilíndrica e sinterizados em forno tubular em atmosfera inerte. Outros espécimes foram confeccionados em matriz de grafite de alta densidade e sinterizados por Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS). Todas as amostras foram caracterizadas por meio de ensaios de densidade, dureza Vickers, tenacidade à fratura e microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Os maiores valores de densidade relativa foram observados para as amostras sinterizadas em SPS, sendo que se obteve valor de densidade relativa de 98,7 % para a concentração de 0,50% de grafeno e 98,4% para a Y-TZP pura. Por outro lado, o maior valor encontrado em sinterização em atmosfera a 1400°C sem a presença de H2 para Y-TZP pura foi da ordem de 96,76%. Os valores de dureza foram maiores nas amostras sinterizadas em SPS, no entanto a tenacidade à fratura mostrou não se alterar em função do conteúdo de grafeno. As fotomicrografias de MEV mostraram que houve uma variação de tamanho de grão de acordo com a presença do grafeno e do método de sinterização. De acordo com os resultados obtidos neste trabalho foi possível concluir que o processamento desenvolvido permitiu a criação de um compósito cerâmico zircônia-grafeno que pôde ser caracterizado por diversos métodos analíticos. A densidade teórica do compósito desenvolvido não foi alcançada por meio de nenhum dos métodos de sinterização utilizados (Tubular ou SPS) e nem variando-se a temperatura. Para espécimes sinterizados em atmosfera inerte, a maior temperatura de sinterização (1400°C) e a presença do gás H2 não melhorou a densificação. Além disso, esses espécimes tiveram aumento da dureza com o aumento da concentração de grafeno, entretanto, a sua tenacidade à fratura não foi afetada pelo teor de grafeno. Para espécimes sinterizados por meio de SPS, a temperatura de sinterização de 1350°C resultou em melhores valores de densificação. Além disso, para este tipo de sinterização, tanto a dureza como a tenacidade à fratura foram afetadas pelo teor de grafeno. / The objective of this work was to develop a zirconia-graphene ceramic composite for dental application. The study evaluated the effect of the starting powder effect, graphene concentration and sintering temperature on the mechanical properties of the composite. For this, the Y-TZP powders were synthesized from zirconium chloride and yttrium chloride solutions in the desired ratio of 3 mol% through the co-precipitation route in ammonium hydroxide solution followed by a series of washes in water, ethanol and butanol with subsequent azeotropic distillation, drying, grinding and calcination. Graphene was obtained from the chemical exfoliation of graphite by the method of Humans modified by Marcano, which resulted in a brownish gel that was subjected to washing by centrifugation, drying and deagglomeration in agate mortar, resulting finally in the graphene oxide. A second step was the chemical reduction with ascorbic acid to obtain reduced graphene oxide, a dark-colored powder that was added to the Y-TZP to obtain the composite in the various concentrations (in mol%) that were studied (0, 01%, 0.05%, 0.10%, 0.50%, 1.00% and 2.00%). The powders were characterized by thermogravimetry, X-ray diffraction and spectroscopy (FT-IR). The specimens were made in cylindrical metallic matrix and sintered in a tubular oven. Other samples were made in high density graphite matrix and sintered by Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS). All samples were characterized by means of density tests, Vickers hardness, fracture toughness and scanning electron microscopy. The highest values of relative density were observed for the sintered samples in SPS. A relative density of 98.7% was obtained for the 0.50% concentration of graphene and 98.4% for the pure Y-TZP. On the other hand, the highest value found in tubular sintering at 1400 ° C without the presence of H2 for pure Y-TZP was of the order of 96.76%. The hardness values were higher in the sintered samples in SPS, however the fracture toughness showed not to change as a function of the content of graphene. SEM images showed that there was a variation of grain size according to the presence of graphene and the sintering method. According to the results of this study it was concluded that the process developed allowed the creation of a graphene-zirconia ceramic composite which can be characterized by various analytical methods. The theoretical density of the composite developed was not achieved by any of the sintering methods used (tubular or SPS) nor by varying the temperature. For tubular sintered specimens, the higher sintering temperature (1400 ° C) and the presence of H2 gas did not improve densification. In addition, these specimens had increased hardness with increasing graphene concentration, however, their fracture toughness was not affected by graphene content. For sintered specimens by SPS, the sintering temperature of 1350 ° C resulted in better densification values. In addition, for this type of sintering, both hardness and fracture toughness were affected by the content of graphene

Bio-inspired or biomimetic chemistry deals with the replication of the nature’s fundamental processes, which can help in understanding the functioning of biological systems and develop novel applications. Although a large number of researchers worked towards the replication of natural synthetic pathways through biogenetic syntheses, enzyme mimicry by the small organic molecules and inorganic complexes emerged in leaps and bounds over the years. The development of biomimetic chemistry then continued in designing the molecules that can function like enzymes. And now, with the advent of nanotechnology, nanostructured materials have been shown to exhibit enzyme-like activities (nanozymes). Interestingly, the two distinct fields, biology and materials science, have been integrated to form an entirely new area of research that has captured a great attention. Along with the pronounced application of nanomaterials as drug delivery vehicles, anticancer agents, antimicrobials, etc., research is also focused on designing nanomaterials for the biomimetic applications. The thesis consists of five chapters. The first chapter provides a general overview of the recently discovered nanozymes that mimic heme-peroxidase, oxidase, superoxide dismutase, catalase, haloperoxidase and phosphatase. This chapter also deals with the nanozymes’ application in sensing and immunoassay, and as antioxidants, neuroprotective agents. The factors affecting the nanozymes’ activity and the challenges associated with them is also covered in this chapter. Chapter 2 is divided into two parts and it deals with the biomimetic properties of graphene-based materials. In part A, the remarkable peroxynitrite (PN) reductase and isomerase activities of hemin-functionalized reduced graphene oxide (rGO) is discussed. In part B, the activity of graphene oxide (GO) as peroxide substrate for the glutathione peroxidase (GPx) enzyme is discussed. In chapter 3, the oxidant material, V2O5, is shown to exhibit significant GPx-like antioxidant activity in its nano-form. Chapter 4 deals with the oxidase-like activity of MnFe2O4 nanooctahedrons for the antibody-free detection of major oxidative stress biomarker, carbonylated proteins. In chapter 5, the phosphotriesterase mimetic role of vacancy engineered nanoceria is discussed. instead of H2O2 for glutathione peroxidase (GPx) enzyme. As partial reduction of GO was observed when treated with GPx enzyme due to the fact that large sheet-like structures cannot be accessible to the active site, we studied the reaction with some GPx mimetics (Fig. 2). Varying the concentration of cofactor glutathione (GSH) required for the reaction, GPx mimic, ditelluride, could accomplish the reduction of GO following Michaelis-Menten kinetics. As the structure of GO is elusive and under active investigation, our study highlights the presence of peroxide linkages as integral part of GO other than hydroxyl, epoxy and carboxylic groups. This study also highlights an important fact that the modification of GO by biologically relevant compounds such as redox proteins must be taken into account when using GO for biomedical applications because such modifications can alter the fundamental properties of GO. Figure 2. The GO reductase and decarboxylase activities of GPx mimetic ditelluride compound, suggesting the presence of peroxide linkages on GO. In chapter 3, we have discussed about the novel antioxidant nanozyme that combats oxidative stress. During our attempts in the investigation of antioxidant nanozymes, we surprisingly noticed that the oxidant material, V2O5, shows significant GPx-like antioxidant activity in its nano-form. The Vn readily internalize in the cells and exhibit remarkable protective effects when challenged against reactive oxygen species (ROS). Although Vn has been shown to protect cells from ROS-induced damage, cells treated with bulk V2O5 and few vanadium complexes resulted in generation of ROS and severe toxicity. Detailed investigation on the mechanism of this interesting phenomenon Chapter 4 deals with the development of novel methodology for detection of biomarkers. Inspired by the use of antibodies and enzymes for detection of a specific antigen, we have shown for the first time that the nanozymes can entirely replace antibodies and enzymes in Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assays (ELISA). As a specific example, we focused on the antibody-free detection of chief oxidative stress biomarker, carbonylated proteins, as our target. To achieve this, we designed MnFe2O4 nanooctahedrons that can function as oxidase enzyme and form signaling point of detection. We functionalized MnFe2O4 nanooctahedrons with hydrazide terminating groups so that carbonylated proteins can be linked to nanozymes by hydrazone linkage (Fig. 4a). Treatment of various carbonylated proteins (hemoglobin (Hb), Myoglobin (Mb), Cytochrome c (Cyt c), RNase and BSA) coated in well plate with hydrazide-terminated MnFe2O4 nanooctahedrons and then with 3,3’,5,5’-tetramethylbenzidine substrate, resulted in instantaneous detection by well plate reader (Fig. 4b). Considering the challenges and difficulties associated with the conventional methods used to detect such modified proteins, this methodology opens up a new avenue for the simple, cost-effective, instantaneous and entirely antibody-free ELISA-type detection of carbonylated proteins. Our results provide a cumulative application of nanozymes’ technology in oxidative stress associated areas and pave a new way for direct early detection of post translational modification (PTM) related diseases. Figure 4. a) Nanozyme linked to the carbonylated protein coated on a plate through hydrazone linkage. b) General bar diagram showing detection of oxidized (carbonylated) proteins by nanozymes. Synopsis Figure 5. a) A cartoon view of surface of ceria showing vacancy. b) Zoomed portion of high resolution transmission electron microscopic image showing few vacancies on the surface of nanoceria. c) Catalytic mechanism of detoxification of paraoxon at the defect site. In the final chapter, chapter 5, we have discussed about the nanomaterial that can function as phosphotriesterase enzyme. Phosphotriesterase enzyme is a bacterial enzyme that is involved in the rapid hydrolysis of sarin gas-related deadly nerve agents such as paraoxon, parathion and malathion. When encountered with these orgnaophospatetriesters, living beings tend to undergo nerve shock to cause paralysis by inhibiting an extremely important enzyme called acetylcholine esterase. They are also known to cause severe oxidative stress problems and are associated with neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, curbing the toxic effects and detoxification of these nerve agents is a world-wide concern and many research teams have focused their attention to address this important problem. Working on the development of nanozymes for important problems, we found that nanoceria, especially the vacancy engineered one (Fig. 5a,b), can serve as active mimic of phosphotriesterase enzyme in the presence of N-methylmorpholine (acting as a distal base histidine). Vacancy engineered nanoceria has been shown to catalyze the hydrolysis of high amounts of paraoxon quiet efficiently and within few minutes with very low activation energy and high kcat. Detailed mechanistic investigation revealed that the presence of both Ce(III) and Ce(IV) is very essential for detoxification activity (Fig. 5b). The vacancies on the surface of nanoceria, were the buried Ce(III) ions are directly exposed to the reaction environment, behave as hotspots or enzyme active sites for detoxification reaction (Fig. 5b).

[pt] A escassez de recursos de água doce está ameaçando nossa sociedade. A urbanização, a industrialização, o crescimento populacional e as alterações climáticas estão a representar um grande desafio para a segurança dos recursos hídricos humanos. Com base nessa situação crítica, os cientistas estão prestando cada vez mais atenção à dessalinização. Os métodos tradicionais de dessalinização empregam o processo de destilação. Esses métodos desempenham um papel importante no serviço de abastecimento de água em alguns locais carentes de água. No entanto, devido ao alto consumo de energia desses métodos, o preço da água produzida é elevado. Portanto, desenvolver novas tecnologias de dessalinização com baixo consumo de energia é de grande interesse e uma delas tem atraído a atenção dos pesquisadores, que é a osmose reversa (OR). O RO utiliza a membrana semipermeável como filtro, o que permite que a água ou moléculas relativamente pequenas passem por si mesmas, mas impede que as grandes moléculas ou íons penetrem. Esta tecnologia reduziu significativamente o consumo de energia em comparação com os métodos de destilação e rapidamente ocupa mais de 60 por cento da capacidade total de dessalinização instalada. O desempenho da tecnologia RO depende fortemente do material das membranas desempenha um papel importante. Nas últimas décadas, polímeros, por exemplo, poliamida e acetato de celulose, dominaram a indústria de RO de membrana semipermeável por sua boa eficiência de rejeição de sal e baixo custo de consumo de energia. No entanto, mesmo com as vantagens das membranas poliméricas, o custo final da água produzida ainda é alto. É por isso que os recursos de água doce ainda continuam sendo a preocupação. Desde a primeira vez que o grafeno foi produzido a partir do grafite, chamou a atenção de pesquisadores em todo o mundo por sua estrutura 2D ultrafina, excelente condutividade e transparência etc. Logo depois, o grafeno e seus derivados, como óxido de grafeno e óxido de grafeno reduzido, exibem potencial na dessalinização devido à sua estrutura 2D fina e expansibilidade. Este trabalho explora a possibilidade de aplicação de derivados de grafeno em um processo de dessalinização relativamente prático. No prsente projeto foram produzidos tanto GO (pelo método de Hammer) e RGO (a partir de aquecimento em atmosfera inerte) e de membranas a partir de acetato de celulose com GO e RGO. Ensaios de dessalinação também foram realizados para amostras produzidas variando de modo sistemático diferentes parâmetros de síntese de GO e RGO e de fabricação das membranas de acetato de celulose. / [en] Fresh-water resource scarcity is threatening our society. Urbanization, industrialization, population growth and climate change are making big challenge to human s water resource security. Based on this critical situation, scientists are paying more and more attention to desalination. Traditional desalination methods employ distillation process. These methods play an important role in water supply service in some water-lacked places. However, due to high energy consumption of these methods, the price of produced water is very high. Therefore, developing new desalination technologies with low energy consumption is of high interest and one of them has attracted researchers attention, which is reverse osmosis (RO).(1) RO utilizes the semi-permeable membrane as a filter, which allows the water or relatively small molecules pass through itself, but prevents the large molecules or ions from penetrate. This technology significantly reduced the energy consumption compared to the distillation methods and quickly takes more than 60 percent of the total installed desalination capacity.(2) The performance of RO technology strongly depends on the material of membranes plays an important role. In the past decades, polymers, for instance polyamide and cellulose acetate, dominate the semi-permeable membrane RO industry for their good salt rejection efficiency and low cost of energy consumption. However, even with the advantages of polymer membranes, the final cost of produced water is still high. That s why fresh-water resource still remain the concern. Since the first time that graphene was produced from graphite, it caught researcher’s attention all over the world for its ultra-thin 2D structure, excellent conductivity and transparency, etc. Soon after, graphene and its derivatives, such as graphene oxide and reduced graphene oxide, exhibit potential in desalination due to their thin 2D structure and expandability.(3) This work explores the possibility of application of graphene derivatives in a relatively practical desalination process. In the present project, GO (by the Hammer method), RGO (from heating in air atmosphere) and cellulose acetate membranes with GO and RGO were produced. Desalination tests were also performed for samples produced by systematically varying different parameters of GO, RGO and fabrication of cellulose acetate membranes.

[pt] Esta pesquisa avaliou a resistência a corrosão de revestimentos de base em resina epóxi, reforçada com 0,1% wt e 0,5% wt de óxido de grafeno reduzido (rGO), aplicado sobre um substrato em aço carbono AISI 1020. Como teste de corrosão foi aplicado testes de imersão em solução com 3,0% wt de NaCl saturadas com CO2, em um vaso de pressão a 70 bar na temperatura de 40 ᵒC, por 528 h. Os revestimentos foram avaliados por teste de aderência (Pull Off), microdureza (Dureza Shore D) e caracterizado por Microscopia Eletrônica de Varredura (MEV) quanto a qualidade de ancoragem do revestimento ao substrato, porosidade e espessura, para a análise de existência de pites na superfície do substrato metálicos foi utilizada microscopia ótica (MO). Os resultados obtidos evidenciaram que os revestimentos nas três condições, como recebido, aditivados com 0,1% wt e 0,5% de rGO tiveram a mesma eficiência na proteção do substrato metálico, todos igualmente, evitaram a formação de pites nas condições de testes propostas. Para adição de 0,1% wt de rGO ocorreu refinamento dos poros e a adição de 0,5% wt promoveu drástica redução da densidade de poros. A adição do rGO não influenciou na Dureza Shore D dos revestimentos. Para pré teste de corrosão, o revestimento com 0,1% wt de rGO obteve maior densidade de poros e menor valor de dureza, seguido pelo 0,0% wt e posterior 0,5% wt de rGO. Para pós testes de corrosão a ordem é invertida. Os resultados pós testes de corrosão indicaram que a porosidade possibilitou a permeação da solução nos revestimentos, e está relacionada com as bolhas e empolamentos, que influenciaram na dureza. A adição de 0,1% wt e 0,5% wt de rGO não influenciou na ancoragem dos revestimentos, obtendo boa acomodação nas irregularidades da superfície metálica do substrato. / [en] This research evaluated the corrosion resistance of an epoxy resin-based coat, reinforced with 0.1 and 0.5 wt% of reduced graphene oxide (rGO), applied to AISI 1020 carbon steel. Immersion tests in aqueous solution with 3.0 wt% NaCl saturated with CO2, in a pressurized cell at 70 bar at 40⁰C, for 528 h. The coating was evaluated by Pull-Off Test, microhardness (Shore D hardness), and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM). The quality of the coating anchoring to the substrate, porosity, and thickness was evaluated. The presence of pits on the surface of the metallic substrate was assessed by Optical Microscopy (OM). The results obtained indicated that the addition of rGO contributed to greater corrosion resistance and provided better structural integrity to the coating. The results obtained showed that the coatings under the three conditions, as received and 0.1 and 0.5wt% rGO additions had the same efficiency in protecting the metallic substrate, avoiding pitting. Pore refinement occurred for 0.1wt % rGO, and the addition of 0.5wt% promoted a drastic reduction in pore density. The addition of rGO did not influence on the Shore D Hardness of the coatings. For a precorrosion test, the coating with 0.1wt% of rGO obtained higher pore density and lower hardness value, followed by 0 wt% and later 0.5 wt% of rGO. For the post corrosion test, the order is reversed. The results of the post corrosion test indicated that the porosity allowed the permeation of the solution in the coatings and is related to the bubbles and blistering, which influenced the hardness. The addition of 0.1 and 0.5 wt% or rGO did not affect the coating anchoring, obtaining reasonable accommodation in the irregularities of the substrate metallic surface.

Настоящая работа состоит из 5 глав и посвящена бесферментному электрокаталитическому определению креатинина в слабокислой среде с использованием различных катализаторов, которые представляют из себя комплексы меди с новыми производными 2,2’-бипиридина. В работе приведены аналитические характеристики исследования всех пяти комплексов, трёх выбранных модификаторов и обоснования выбора наилучших веществ для модифицирования стеклоуглеродного электрода в определении концентрации креатинина. Проведено сравнение аналитических характеристик, полученных от метода циклической вольтамперометрии и метода с использованием полевого транзистора с расширенным затвором, и выбран предпочтительный метод анализа. / This work consists of 5 chapters and is devoted to the non-enzymatic electrocatalytic determination of creatinine in a weakly acidic medium using different catalysts, which are copper complexes with new 2,2'-bipyridine derivatives. Analytical characteristics of all five complexes, three selected modifiers and substantiation of the choice of the best substances for modifying the glass carbon electrode in determining creatinine concentration are given in the work. Comparison of the analytical characteristics obtained from the cyclic voltammetry method and the method using a field-effect transistor with an extended gate was carried out and the preferred method of analysis was selected.

Kohlenstoff 2D-Nanoschichten wie Graphen und Graphenoxid sind vielversprechend, aber schwierig in Bezug auf multivalente Wechselwirkungen zu kontrollieren. Das Verständnis, wie neuartige Funktionalisierungsmethoden die Geometrie, Wechselwirkungen und elektronischen Eigenschaften der Graphenblätter beeinflussen, ist der Schwerpunkt dieser Arbeit. Diese Arbeit untersucht zwei Methoden zur Modifikation von 2D-Graphennanoschichten: "Graft to" und "Graft from" Techniken, unter Verwendung von „[2+1] Nitren-Cycloaddition“ und ringöffnender Polymerisation von Glycerin, zusätzlich zum Wachstum von 2D-Triazin-Kohlenstoffstrukturen. Diese modifizierten Nanoschichten wurden hinsichtlich ihrer Wechselwirkung mit dem Vesikulären Stomatitis-Virus (VSV) und ihrer Zweidimensionalität mittels Rastersondenmikroskopie und Raman-Spektroskopie untersucht. Die Studie zeigt das Potenzial funktionalisierter Graphen in der Virologie und liefert Einblicke für zukünftige Forschungen. Ergebnisse zeigten, dass funktionalisierte 2D-TRGO an VSV-Partikel bindet und flexibel genug bleibt, um auf einer flachen Glimmeroberfläche Falten zu bilden, aber sie können die Virushüllen nicht vollständig umschließen. Dies liegt an den hohen Energiekosten für das Biegen großer lateraler Dimensionen (~1-2 μm) im Vergleich zur 200 nm Länge der VSV-Partikel. Eine optimale laterale Dimension von ~300 nm für funktionalisierte 2D-TRGO-Blätter maximiert virale Wechselwirkungen, Hemmungseffizienz und Anzeichen viraler Umhüllung. Triazin, ein Schlüsselmolekül in der Funktionalisierung, kann zur Herstellung von 2D-Triazin-Strukturen im Gramm-Maßstab verwendet werden. Potenzielle Anwendungen funktionalisierter Graphene umfassen spezialisierte antivirale Therapien und die Verwendung als Plattform für antivirale Medikamente. Zudem zeigten die Ergebnisse minimale Störungen der elektronischen Struktur von Graphen durch Triazin-Funktionalisierung. / Carbon-based 2D nanosheets like graphene and graphene oxide are promising but challenging to control in terms of multivalent interactions. Understanding how novel functionalization methods affect graphene sheets' geometry, interaction specificity and electronic properties is the focus of this thesis, which is crucial for advancing the design of 2D nanomaterials. This thesis examines two novel methods for modifying 2D graphene nanosheets: "graft to" and "graft from" techniques, using [2+1] nitrene cycloaddition reactions and ring-opening multibranch polymerization of glycerol in addition to in plane growth of 2D triazine -carbon based structures. These modified nanosheets were studied for their interaction with vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) and their two-dimensionality using scanning probe microscopy methods and Raman spectroscopy. The study highlights the potential of functionalized graphene nanosheets in virology and provides insights for future research. Results revealed that functionalized 2D TRGO binds to VSV particles and remains flexible enough to wrinkle on a flat mica interface but they cannot completely wrap the viral envelopes. This is due to the high energy cost of bending large lateral dimensions (~1-2μm) compared to the 200 nm length of VSV particles. An optimum lateral dimension of ~300 nm for functionalized 2D TRGO sheets was found to maximize viral interactions, inhibition efficiency, and signs of viral envelopment. Triazine, a key molecule in functionalization, can also be used to create 2D triazine structures on a gram scale. Functionalized graphene's potential applications include specialized antiviral therapies, such as targeted therapies exploiting multivalent interactions between viruses and cellular receptors, and using functionalized graphene as a delivery platform for antiviral drugs. Additionally, results showed minimal disturbance of graphene electronic structure via Triazine functionalization.