Romance as a literary genre, although dominant in medieval Europe, has often been marginalized in later ages. Even when it saw a marked revival in Britain in the later nineteenth century, it still found itself embattled; its practitioners and advocates had to justify their position in an era which tended to regard tales of wonder and adventure as being little more than childish fancies and contrary to prevailing notions about the continuing advancement of the human race and the perceived duty of writers to engage with social issues of the day. However, the phenomenon could not be so easily ignored, or dismissed as belonging merely to the province of lower and undeveloped tastes. This thesis considers the work of several romance writers of the period, of varying background, outlook, and literary ability. These are, principally, Buchan, Chesterton, Conan Doyle, Conrad, Haggard, Kipling, Machen, Stevenson, and Wells. Throughout, the emphasis is upon works which in the past may have been comparatively neglected: for instance, in many cases, such as that of Buchan or Wells, the short stories take precedence over the novels. Adventuring into new realms of possibility often took the form in this period of an actual journey out to far places. Chapter One discusses the colonial romances of Buchan and Haggard in Africa, Kipling in India and Conrad and Stevenson in the Far East and the South Seas - distinct geographical locations in which differing romance elements come to the fore. It is argued that overall in this period there seem to be fewer romantic possibilities abroad than in former ages, but that they are still seen to linger (perhaps unexpectedly) in Conrad. Chapter Two undertakes a special study of Haggard in order to show how he modifies the imperial adventure tale of his day by bringing in elements of other, older, romance traditions - this being an important, and under-recognized, aspect of his fiction.

Jacques Maritain, although now largely ignored in France except for opportunistic re-appropriations of his work, was and still is highly esteemed in North (and South) America. This thesis examines the extent to which Maritain himself is responsible for the unevenness of his reputation, besides the part played by relevant geopolitical events. It also questions how much his readers have contributed by selecting from the complex mosaic of his work those things which suit their purposes. The thesis examines the core tenet of Maritain’s work: the tension between the ‘esprit dur’ of his inflexible Thomist theology and philosophy and the ‘coeur doux’ of his liberal humanitarianism. This tension is examined from the standpoint of the Second Vatican Council and Maritain’s response to those pivotal years in the Catholic Church, his self-declared testament, Le Paysan de la Garonne. Maritain’s contribution to the Council and its aftermath, especially as applied to consideration of the Church’s position on ‘la question juive’, helped to seal the fate of his jagged reputation. The research analyses Maritain’s key outputs contextually during a period of massive upheaval and shows their expansive influence. The dialogic approach to the works encompasses not only French but North American sources. The thesis also analyses correspondence between Maritain and his close friend Cardinal Journet, which has not before been the subject of significant analysis, enabling a deeper reading of Le Paysan de la Garonne and what lay behind the book, fifty years after its publication. This multi-disciplinary thesis, relevant to French studies, philosophy, intellectual history, politics and religious studies, makes a compelling case for a reappraisal of Maritain’s legacy - an individual so often ‘homme-carrefour’, caught up in key twentieth-century events and yet also having a vital influence on them.

The detailed history of Rousseau's reputation in France in the nineteenth century is gradually being written. The general outline provided by Albert Schinz(1) and Raymond Trousson(2) is being filled in. F.G. Healey opened the way with his Rousseau et Napoleon in 1957(3). Jean Roussel has followed in 1972 with his Rousseau en France apres la Revolution, 1795-1830. (4) The aim of this thesis is to provide a further contribution to the history of "Rousseauism". In our Introduction, we draw on secondary sources to give an outline of Rousseau's reputation in France prior to 1848. We then proceed to examine in detail the attitudes of six writers of 1848 regarding Rousseau. This constitutes the body of our thesis.1848 marks a watershed. Soon after Louis Philippe's accession to the throne in 1830, the inactivity and corruption of his regime began to provoke general dissatisfaction among the population at large. The question of social justice was discussed everywhere in France. Writers were to be found who not only drew attention to the social evils of the time but who put forward suggestions for reform; some even argued in favour of a return to the Republic. Prominent among such (1) Cf. Etat, present des travaux sur J.-J. Rousseau, Paris,Societe Les Belles Lettres and New York, Modem Language Association of America, 1941.(2) Cf. Rousseau et sa fortune litteraire, Bordeaux, Ducros, 1971. (3) Geneve, Librairie Droz et Paris, Librairie Minard. (4) Paris, Librairie Armand Colin. Writers were Alphonse de Lamartine, Pierre Leroux, Jules Michelet, George Sand, Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Louis Blanc. These were the "men of 1848". Indeed, when the Revolution broke out in February, 1848, Lamartine, who was made Minister of Foreign Affairs, virtually headed the Provisional Government while aiding the eighty-one year- old President, Dupont de l'Eure; and Blanc became President of the Luxembourg Commission after having first served as one of the three Secretaries to the Government. We have chosen to study these six figures because they reflect the spirit of change which characterizes 1848 and because for all of them Rousseau had great significance. This, in spite of the fact that, as R. Trousson has indicated (1), the period of the 1848 Revolution, unlike the period of the 1789 Revolution, is generally unfavourable to Rousseau: on the right, Lamartine's intense anti-Rousseauism is matched by Proudhon's on the left; Leroux, Michelet, G. Sand and Blanc stand out as declared disciples; yet, as will be seen for the first time in our detailed study, they too in many respects belong to their age in their fundamental misunderstanding of Rousseau's philosophical and political ideas.

This thesis comprises: (i) A bibliography of all works, literary and medical, known to be by Jacques Grevin (1533-1570), or attributed to him. This bibliography incorporates texts and editions discovered by the present author. (ii) A biography, bringing up to date the previous most extensive biography by Lucien Pinvert (1899). This includes an evaluation of works attributed to Jacques Grevin, notably the verse Epistre au Tigre (1561) and the Temple de Ronsard (1563), in an attempt to resolve the question of authorship. (iii) A detailed study of every reference to contemporary religious controversy found in Grevin's writings, and also of comments made by his contemporaries about his convictions, in an attempt to evaluate his religious allegiance. (iv) A discussion of Grevin's literary relationships with the most prominent contemporary poets: successive chapters are devoted to Ronsard, Du Bellay and the other poets of the Pleiade. An attempt has been made to note every significant source of inspiration found by Grevin in the Pleiade poets and to assess the extent and the manner of his borrowing from these poets. In the case of Ronsard and Du Bellay, Grevin's personal relationship with them is also analysed. (v) An annotated edition of Grevin's Preceptes de Plutarnue monstrant la maniere comme il faut se gouverner en mariage (1558). This translation of Plutarch was done while Grevin was still at school and was soon afterwards prepared for publication. In the introduction and notes of the present edition Grevin's text is compared with the Greek original, in the form in which it was known to him and his contemporaries, and with contemporary Latin and French translations (by La Boetie, Amyot, Jean Lode, Jehan de Marconville, Speroni degli Alvarotti and Jacques de la Tapie) in order to analyse his working methods. (vi) A bibliography of relevant works.

Much recent writing on the 'fortuna' of Machiavelli deals with predictable authors (mainly of historical treatises and popular political pamphlets) who have long been associated with Machiavelli. This thesis aims to set the discussion in a wider context by taking into account those poets and dramatists who can be shown to have had first hand knowledge of Machiavelli. Examination of classical and Biblical sources has helped to determine the precise influence of the Italian author. This method has revealed that sixteenth century writers, when unimpeded by political loyalties, were able to form an impartial and reasoned opinion of his works, and has extended considerably documentation of the range of passages in Machiavelli known to the sixteenth century. As well as examining their poetry, I have discussed, where applicable these authors' prose treatises which confirm their preoccupation with Machiavelli and which often provide a key to the correct interpretation of their poetry and drama. Study of the ambivalent attitude of many of these writers towards Machiavelli helps to deepen our appreciation of the complexity and subtlety of the fiction of the period. With the exception of Ronsard, there is a short biography of each of the authors considered---Pierre Matthieu, Estienne Jodelle, Jean de La Jessee, Louis Des Masures, Agrippa D'Aubigne, Alexandre de Pont-Aymery, Robert Garnier and the La Taille brothers. In some cases, this is the first time such biographies have been established and they have called, attention to lesser known works which are nevertheless of historical value. This study concludes that Machiavelli's ideas held an enduring interest and fascination for the major French poets and dramatists of the Renaissance.

La Fontaine's literary and intellectual evolution is characterized by a hesitant and conscientious exploring of side-tracks which require to be analysed in order to appreciate the complex realities behind the poet s literary creation. His life which spanned three quarters of a century is divided in this study into six broad stages, corresponding more or less to the major events and influences on his career: childhood education, the search for literary models, the creation of intellectual poetry, the approach to maturity, intellectual maturity, old age and decline. These stages are considered as a series of intellectual experiences culminating in the formation of La Fontaine's personality as a literary artist and an epicurean moralist. The poet became an intellectual after undergoing various experiences from the world around him. His curious and eclectic temperament made him highly susceptible to all sorts of influences as well as kept his mind constantly on the move, from one literary genre to another, from literature to philosophy, philosophy to science, science to history and thence back to literature. This intellectual mobility drew inspiration from various sources, both ancient and modern, to which La Fontaine was exposed. Thus the formation of his mind and art owes a lot to the complex and interacting influences of such ancient writers and thinkers as Plato, Homer, Epicurus, Horace, Lucretius, Ovid, Apuleius, Virgil, Seneca, and nearer home, Montaigne, Marot, Malherbe, Gassendi, Malebranche, Spinoza, Leibniz and others. La Fontaine took something from each of these thinkers for the building of his own intellectual personality. It mattered little to him whether their influences were of the past or of his own generation; he submitted to them in his own particular manner so long as they represented his ideal and conception of life. La Fontaine was generously endowed with the innate powers of imagination, observation and sensitivity which, coupled with his amiable disposition, won him numerous admirers, friends and influential patrons who aided his intellectual growth. This growth, the subject of our study, is reflected in the mature reaction of the poet's particular genius to the problems posed by his age.

The thesis examines the theme of reverie in the work of Stendhal, seeking to illustrate, firstly, its significance in the context of his work as a whole, and, secondly, its function in the major novels. Part I considers the occurrence, of reverie throughout the Stendhalian corpus. A comparative study of adjuncts to reverie in Stendhal and Rousseau is undertaken in Chapter One, emphasising the similar sensibility and, at the same time, the individuality of the two authors. Chapter Two deals with the personal and environmental factors conditioning the onset of reverie. Certain adjuncts to reverie are discussed in Chapters Three and Four, in order to underline the very personal nature of Stendhal's reaction, firstly, to nature and, secondly, to the arts. An analysis of categories of reverie undertaken in Chapter Five demonstrates the richness and complexity of the theme and examines some of the synonyms involved. Part II investigates the role of reverie in the fictional work of Stendhal. Chapter Six examines its function in the characterization, structure and denouement of Armance. The rather differen. part played by reverie in the structure and denouement of Le Rouge et le Noir is shown in Chapter Seven, while Chapter Eight suggests reasons why the role of reverie in Lucien Leuwen is less important than in the other major novels. Chapter Nine concentrates on the structural function of reverie in La Chartreuse de Panne and on its contribution to the elegiac atmosphere of the work. The significance of reverie in what we possess of Larniel is assessed in Chapter Ten. In the Conclusion, the main findings from the investigation are discussed. Reverie is seen to be an important theme in the fictional works of Stendhal. By stamping the term with his peculiar brand of irony, Stendhal gives his own dimension to the word reverie. The most significant result to arise from an approach to the novels via reverie concerns structure: a definite pattern emerges in the novels and the term is recurrent in Stendhal's thought, to the extent of forming a vertebral column in his work. Indeed, Stendhalian literary creation is found to be an escape into, and at the same time a development from, reverie. The thesis shows that each of Stendhal's novels closes on an optimistic note, with the triumph, despite the bleakness of the world outside, of the dream itself, surely the most complete and the most perfect experience of reverie.

It has long been assumed that in his cult of Antiquity Andre Chenier drew the major inspiration for his poetry from Ancient Greece. This thesis seeks to demonstrate that Chenier was even more indebted to Rome and to the transmission of Greek culture in its Latin form. Chenier's Elegies have been chosen to illustrate this proposition and to show how the poet, taking the Latin elegists as models, produced poetry that was both traditional and highly original. The Elegies are examined in the context of Neo-classicism. Chenier's life highlights the development of his love of Antiquity and gives insight into the personal experiences which, for him, could only be expressed within the Classical Tradition. The depth of his scholarship and methods of assembling material from Latin sources are revealed by analysis of his library and manuscripts. Eighteenth century studies of Elegy indicate that Chenier's interpretation of the Latin elegists was greatly influenced by Abbe Souchay and others. Similarly his literary principles, for example la naivete and imitation inventrice, are discussed in relation to the views of theorists including Winckelmann and Abbe Dubos. Finally, Chenier's poems are linked closely to the elegies of Propertius, Tibullus, and Ovid, showing the renewal of Latin Elegy in thought and style. The distinctive quality of Chenier's verse is established by comparison with Le Brun, Parny, and Bertin, who imitated the same models. This thesis puts forward three important considerations. It underlines the unsatisfactory nature of editions of the Elegies, concluding that a new edition should enlarge the Lycoris poems, and incorporate the literary implications of G. Buisson's identification of D'.z.n - Camille. Secondly, it demonstrates that, contrary to accepted opinion, Chenier was dependent above all on Propertius. Thirdly, it challenges previous criticisms of the Elegies, suggesting that Chenier is never more original than when giving expression to the themes which form the essence of Latin Elegy.

The aim of this study is to discover the nature of the universe of Cyrano de Bergerac as perceived in his imaginative works, and, in particular, in his two novels known as L'Autre Monde, by common consent the major of his works. As preparatory work, as wide a knowledge as has been practicable has been acquired of late sixteenth-century French and Italian writings, and seventeenth-century French ones, treating of topics and questions akin to those to be seen in Cyrano's work; while set into this framework, the main enquiry is basically inductive in approach. In the Introduction, the aims of this study are outlined, and past critical approaches to Cyrano and to his work discussed. In Chapter II, an attempt is made to discern the constants in Cyrano's multifarious depictions of the physical universe. Chapters III, IV, and V consist in an elucidation of Cyrano's notion of man's place in the universe, and of what he considers to be sound social and political attitudes. Out of these findings arises the question of the nature of the freedom advocated by him; this is discussed in chapter VI. Recent studies have presented diametrically opposed interpretations of Cyrano's epistemology, thus necessitating further consideration of this aspect of his thought. Does he have a theory of knowledge? If so, why is there disparity in critics' appraisal of it? Cyrano's notion of, and attitude to the experience of knowing is explored in chapter VII. The final chapter considers the formal aspects of Cyrano's novels and letters, and the light that these throw on his attitudes and beliefs. The study demonstrates that all Cyrano's writings witness to the same set of moral values. In the Conclusion, these findings are set into the context of European thought from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment.

This thesis studies the dialogue that occurs between the works of Jorge Luis Borges and Miguel de Unamuno relative to their views on various issues of a philosophical nature, such as the limits of human knowledge or the possibility of immortality. This study is made from a transnational perspective in which the texts are read not as simple representatives of a local context, but as part of a literary dynamic which transcends geographical limits. In approaching the analysis form this perspective, one can observe the way in which, on occasions, both authors’ works follow parallel lines of reason which thereby mutually clarify and expound upon each other. In other instances, although the ideas expressed with respect to certain arguments – particularly that of immortality– originate from opposite directions, these very ideas become complementary and even find some common ground. The introduction to the thesis sets out a dual approach that has served as a methodological framework to this investigation. Thus, the proposed approach combines perspectives from both comparative and transnational studies which will facilitate the inclusion in the study of concepts derived from different philosophical, literary, cultural and religious sources. This is followed by the core of the thesis which is divided into two parts. The first part consists of two chapters that are dedicated to the analysis of the relationship between the Borges’ and Unamuno’s literary texts and Kierkegaard’s and Schopenhauer’s philosophical works, placing special emphasis on the interest that Borges’ and Unamuno’s texts have in the notions of knowledge –of both the self and the universe– and on the existence of the subject. The first chapter revolves around the study of the existing relationship between the Works of Miguel de Unamuno and the Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard. A brief section is dedicated to the explanation of some of the fundamental notions of Kierkegaardian ideology, paying particular attention to what he understands as the three principal states of individual development: the aesthetic (in which responsibility is rejected), the ethical (responsibility is accepted), and the theological (one achieves closeness to God). Through this explanation of Kierkegaard’s approaches, one can observe the way in which the analysis of certain Unamunian texts in the light of these parameters will offer new and intriguing shades of meaning. Thus, the concept of accepting responsibility that is so prevalent in Kierkegaard’s works will reveal Augusto Pérez from Niebla as an aesthetic, liminal or Romantic character who feels alienated by his surrounding reality and aspires to iii escape this alienation and embrace a more complete, more ethical existence. The notion of responsibility to others and to oneself is also key in understanding the tortured nature of don Manuel in the novella Don Manuel Bueno, mártir. Don Manuel’s ethics are challenged by the conflict generated between the internal and the external. At the same time, this conflict will help to elevate the moral stature of another character in the story; Angela Carballino. Finally, the notion of a ‘leap of faith’, which according to Kierkegaard is necessary in order to arrive at the theological stage of development, will become fundamental when studying how brother Juan confronts his difficulties relating to divinity and the infinite. If the analysis of the existing relationship between the works of Unamuno and Kierkegaard will permit a broader comprehension of the key ideas in Unamuno, such as personal evolution, the relationship with oneself, reality and divinity, then the study of Borges’ and Schopenhauer’s works, as presented in the second chapter, is equally beneficial. In this chapter, after another brief presentation of some of Schopenhauer’s basic philosophical concepts, one will be able to observe the way in which Borges incorporates these into his stories –however, sometimes subtly modified. The idea of Schopenhauerian will plays a fundamental role when configuring the relationship that man maintains with himself and with the universe in texts such as ‘La forma de la espada’ or ‘ La escritura del dios’, and thereby illustrates the importance of universal causality in certain Borgesian works. The story ‘Deutsches Requiem’ is particularly revealing in this aspect as this narrative acquires a fundamental presence of the notion of a ‘moment of clarity’; an instant in time and space when a human being is capable of modifying the inevitable universal causality through choice. The second part of the thesis, also divided into two chapters, revolves around the study of the creative dialogue between both authors’ texts in relation to two particular issues; the limits of human reason and the challenge of eternity. The first chapter of this part delves deeper into the previously mentioned interest that Unamuno and Borges exhibited in their writings for the relationship between the individual and the universe. Knowledge is fundamental to this relationship, which is problematic due to the limits that reason imposes upon human beings. This chapter will focus on the manner in which both authors’ characters face the inability to comprehend their surrounding realities whilst attempting to satisfy the need for knowledge. There are two main consequences in the search for knowledge: death, at the hands of another or self-induced, or the hopeful resignation to a future where the truth will be revealed. Both Borges’ and Unamuno’s characters throw themselves into the search for wisdom propelled by identical motives. They experience similar moods and suffer the same negative consequences. However, a small number of Borges’ characters are able to go one step further than their Unamunian counterparts and end up in full possession of the knowledge they seek. The result is deceiving as these characters, upon achieving universal wisdom, lose their very essence, thereby demonstrating that human beings are unable to comprehend the ultimate mysteries of the universe. The creative dialogue studied in this third chapter is based upon Unamuno’s and Borges’ communion of perspectives on the fact that humans suffer from the impossibility of absolute knowledge. In this dialectic, Borges’ texts complement Unamuno’s and offer another perspective of the topic in question by introducing new elements to the debate and arriving at the same conclusion. iv Through a narrative dialogue, the second chapter of this part studies how Borges’ and Unamuno’s positions on the afterlife, although seemingly opposite, actually complement each other and even share some common ground. Initially, both authors’ texts play with two completely different perspectives on the existence of the individual in eternity. Unamuno’s texts plead from the very beginning for the need of a human to access an individual immortality in which the personal conscience is preserved at all costs. In spite of the fact that there exists a certain flexibility with regard to the preservation of individuality after death in Unamuno’s texts, their insistence upon perpetuating one’s own conscience separates them from Borges’ narrations. In these texts, passing into eternity is described as collective experience in which an indispensable condition must be observed at all times; the complete dissolution of the individual conscience. These two perspectives on human existence in the hereafter do not only complement and illuminate one another, but also find a point of middle ground in one of Unamuno’s most classic propositions; the concept of intrahistoria.