The purpose of this study was to investigate coping strategies employed by low-income households of Sweetwaters KwaZulu-Natal, who have members who are infected with HIV in ensuring food security when dealing with HIV/AIDS. This study was based on households who have members living openly with HIV/AIDS and who were members of a support group of HIV positive people. This study was conducted between July 2003 and June 2004. Focus group meetings were conducted with a support group of 26 members (Philani Support Group). Questionnaires, group discussions and observations were used to collect data from households. In order for the study to investigate coping strategies, the following sub-problems were investigated to measure changes before and after illness or death in household: changes in finances, changes in food habits, social aspect of studied household which included infrastructure (housing, roads, water, sanitation and energy); external and internal support. There were no major differences in coping strategies, but the structure, resources and size of households informed their coping strategies. Food was the centre of all activities of households. As the ability of the household to produce food or earn income decreased, the need for food increased. Government social grants have been shown to be the main resource for coping (they enabled households to cope or survive). It is recommended that low-income households affected by HIV/AIDS and totally dependent on grants should be helped not to develop a dependency syndrome by implementing strategies that will encourage active participation and deal with passiveness that exists within low-income households of Sweetwaters affected by HIV/AIDS. As this study indicates that there are no resources on which concerned households depend, it suggests a greater need for capital to boost the household and strategies for households to be able to sustain themselves. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2005.

The aim of the study was to find benefits derived from the natural propagation and the use of guava plants and fruit by people living in rural areas of KwaZulu-Natal, looking at guava as a source of food, income, medicinal uses, shade, a source of fuel and use for agricultural purposes like fencing; and also assessing Conservation of the Agricultural Resource Act (CARA), Act 43 of 1983 relating to guava plant as invasive species. The Act states that all alien invader species and weeds should be controlled or removed depending on the category. CARA states that plants in category one are declared as alien invasive plants and are not allowed to grow on the land or appear on the water surface. Plants under this category may not be transported or allowed to disperse e.g. Psidium x durbanensis (Durban guava). Category two plants are invader species that have a potential value, plants that are used by the people as a source of income and food. These species can be retained if they grow in special areas demarcated for the purpose (an orchard). If these species are found outside demarcated areas they are to be removed e.g. Psidium guava (guava). Category three species are mostly plants with ornamental value which are not allowed to occur anywhere unless they were already in existence when the regulation came into effect e.g. Psidium guineense (brazillian guava) and Psidium cattleianum (strawberry guava). The study focused on selected areas of KwaZulu-Natal,: Umgungundlovu district municipality (Richmond local municipality) and Uthungulu district municipality. Richmond represented the midlands areas and Uthungulu the coastal areas to reflect two different areas of KwaZulu-Natal. To investigate this study the researcher used telephonic interviews with 23 Extension officials, questionnaires to guide focus group discussions which were conducted with 28 community groups that were involved in guava usage. Informal observation surveys were also carried out with five markets (stall holders) selling guava and guava products. Informal observations in two supermarkets and two home industries were also conducted. The results showed that people in rural areas still use this resource (guava) as a source of fuel (wood), medicine (especially the leaves and bark), fruit for own consumption (either processed or raw) and income generation. The impact of the legislation on rural poor communities is negative as guavas sustain livelihoods and the costs of applying for permits are prohibitive. People are illiterate yet they have to apply for special permits to plant this useful species because the regulation stipulates that guava plants must be controlled if dispersed outside demarcated areas. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

Crop production is widely promoted as a solution to food insecurity, but its real impact on household food security has not been measured in South Africa. Small-scale production is a common practice for many rural poor households of South Africa. While agriculture may play a major role in reducing food insecurity, agricultural growth alone cannot solve the problem of food insecurity at household level. South Africa is food secure at the national level, but available data suggest that between 58.5 and 73 percent of South African households experience food insecurity. This study set out to measure the impact of crop production on household food security among sampled households in two communal regions, Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni, of KwaZulu-Natal, to establish whether participation in food production improved household food security. Household surveys which explored the types of crops produced, food consumed, income obtained from crop sales and the food security situation, were carried out at Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni respectively (n = 200 and n = 68). The types of crops produced were investigated using crop production seasonality charts, while the household food security situation was measured using the Coping Strategy Index tool. The main findings of the study indicated that household gardens provided food for household members, but did not provide sufficient quantities to meet year-round consumption requirements. Most sampled households relied largely on purchased foods. More than 80% of the food consumed by households came from purchases, 4% and 13% came from own production in Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni respectively. Among the households surveyed, 58% and 89% were below the poverty line for Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni respectively. Umbumbulu and Maphephetheni’s largest household income contributions came from wages or salaries. Social grants were the second most important source of household income. As participation in crop production alleviated food shortages somewhat, its contribution to food security cannot be ignored. A study needs to be conducted to investigate whether participation in both farm/non farm activities reduces the number of households below the poverty line. Government should provide extension officers to monitor and evaluate the impact of gardens on household food security. To guide the design and implementation of commercial and home gardens, households need to develop clear and consistent policies, strategies, processes and procedures, and (a sound) monitoring and evaluation framework. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2007.

This study set out to investigate the food insecurity coping strategies of sample households from the Embo community in the Umbumbulu district of KwaZulu-Natal. A total of 151 Ezemvelo Farmers' Organisation and 49 non-EFO members were interviewed in two rounds, beginning in October 2004 and March 2005. The total sample included 200 respondents from 176 households. A survey questionnaire was used to collect data on socio-economic characteristics, food consumption patterns and application of consumption coping strategies. The study used the Coping Strategy Index to establish the food security status of the households by calculating and comparing the Coping Strategy Index Scores of households. Households applied short-term food consumption coping strategies to cope with food shortages and resorted to short-term income coping strategies when they experienced income shocks. Coping strategies employed by households were effective in mitigating food insecurity. Most strategies applied by most households were not detrimental to livelihoods and did not compromise future household food security. Food insecurity increased the frequency and severity of application of coping strategies employed by households. Households ate less preferred foods, skipped days without eating and ate wild foods. These coping strategies were particularly dangerous to households as proper nutrition is critical for ensuring healthy and productive lives. Food security interventions need to support beneficial coping strategies currently employed by households. Relevant stakeholder like the Departments of Health and Social Development need to target nutritional interventions through workshops and training with vulnerable households. Supporting protective coping mechanisms entails protecting entitlements to land, water resources and productive and non-productive assets. Agricultural production improved the incomes and food consumption of the sampled households. Sustainable agricultural production should be promoted and sustained at household level. The Ministry of Agriculture and local development agencies should assist the community by providing production inputs, for example, provision of vegetable seeds, mechanisation, infrastructure and information on improved production techniques to encourage greater productivity and wider engagement in agriculture. Home gardens could make iii valuable contributions to family food supply and income. The Ministry of Agriculture and local development agencies should give more advice through extension and training services, providing support through negotiation of contracts with suppliers. While agriculture may play a major role in the reduction of food insecurity, attention should also be given to the promotion of non-farming activities, particularly those that can reduce food insecurity. The community and households should actively engage in the design and implementation of policies government policies and strategies for farm and non-farm interventions. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

The aim of this study was to explore the role and the prospects of smallholder agriculture as local economic development in Eastern Pondoland, in the former Transkei homeland. The study explored the role of agriculture in contributing to local economic development and the upliftment of the rural poor. It also explored the role that government and its agencies have played and could play in stimulating agricultural development.

This thesis is an attempt to fill the gap in our knowledge about rural poverty and what it means to be poor. It has grown out of concerns that a lot has been said and written about poverty, yet poor people’s own understanding of their poverty is hardly ever included in policy and programs designed to reduce poverty. The rural poor are particularly marginalised in terms of voice as they are often represented by mere statistical figures. (For complete abstract open document)

[Truncated abstract] As a developing country, Indonesia has been struggling with complex and contentious development issues since Independence in 1945. Despite remarkable economic achievement during the New Order period (1966-1998), poverty has persisted and the benefits of development have been unequally distributed. Social welfare — the system of social security to protect the well-being of the weaker members of society has received little attention in Indonesia, both from the state and from the scholarly community. The historical neglect of social welfare in Indonesia has begun to be addressed recently, with the Social Safety Net (SSN) initiative. SSN is a social welfare program that was launched by the government of Indonesia to mitigate the deleterious impacts of the economic crisis that hit the nation in 1997. This thesis aims to assess how the SSN accommodated the needs and aspirations of poor women, particularly those who live in rural areas. The rural poor deserve attention because poverty in rural areas is widespread and often intractable, and because poverty in rural areas tends to be more invisible than in urban areas. The urban poor are more visible, because they are “in the face” of the powerful every day, and they are more likely to be able to access agencies of power than the rural poor.

Thesis (MSc (Forest and Wood Science))—University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / The utilization and commercialization of indigenous fruit trees has in the past been overlooked by extension agencies due to the misconception that they do not play a major role in contributing to the rural livelihoods. There is new and increasing emphasis on the contribution of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) on improving the livelihoods and sustainable management of forest ecosystems of the Miombo woodlands. This study was conducted around Mwekera area in the Copperbelt province, Zambia to determine the role of indigenous fruit trees in the rural livelihoods. A total of 70 households were interviewed in the survey using semi-structured questionnaires, in-depth open ended interviews and focus group meetings to collect information on the use of indigenous fruits. The study revealed that 99% of the households experience ‘hunger’ during the rainy season from November to April every year. Ninety seven percent (97%) of the households collect indigenous fruit, with the most collected fruits being Uapaca kirkiana (74%), Anisophyllea boehmii (71%) and Parinari curatellifolia (67%). Additionally, there is very little selling of indigenous fruit (31%) but that Uapaca kirkiana and Anisophyllea boehmii account for 95% of the fruits sold. Forty six percent (46%) of the households process fruits of U. kirkiana, A. boehmii and P. curatellifolia into juice and/or porridge. Furthermore IFTs are also used as traditional medicine. Sixty three percent (63%) of the households used IFTs for medicinal purposes with two-thirds of the respondents citing Anisophyllea boehmii as an important medicinal tree species. The study also showed that 85% of the respondents have seen a change in the forest cover resulting into loss of biodiversity with 70% of the respondents indicating that the change is with respect to reduction in forest size and scarcity of some species; and that charcoal production and clearance of land for cultivation are the major causes of the scarcity of indigenous fruit trees. It is concluded that the major contribution of IFTs in the study area is in filling the gap during times of hunger rather as being a source of income through selling. Charcoal production and clearance for agriculture are the main contributing agents for the loss of biodiversity and scarcity of IFTs. It is recommended that domestication of IFTs and sustainable forestry and agricultural management practices be employed to ensure that future generations continue to benefit from the forest resource.

A great deal of research has demonstrated that Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) play a crucial role in the livelihoods of the rural poor, and are particularly important to the most marginalised people throughout the developing world. However, these livelihood benefits are not without cost to the natural resource base that rural communities depend so heavily upon. The continued dependence on NTFPs as a major livelihood source must be contingent upon the minimisation of the level of disturbance created through this dependency. This study assesses the level of disturbance created through natural resource harvesting in eight study sites around South Africa, and applies a predictive conceptual model created by Shankaar et al. (2004b) to try and ascertain under what conditions the level of disturbance created through natural resource harvesting will be high. It assesses the three key factors that Shankaar et al. (2004b) identified (level of Local Ecological Knowledge (LEK), level of dependency and access to markets) in relation to the level of disturbance found at each of the study sites. It was found that there was a statistically significant relationship between the level of dependency and the level of disturbance, but there was no statistically significant relationship between either access to markets or the level of LEK and disturbance. Regulation of land use is a key issue, with weak local institutions in communal areas making effective resource management difficult. The significance of these findings is discussed, and priorities for future research are identified. This study adds to the body of knowledge related to NTFP harvesting and critically analyses the conflicts between the livelihood gains and the level of disturbance created through NTFP harvesting in an attempt to ascertain how livelihoods can be safeguarded. And in the longer-term, so that management strategies can be identified where resource extraction is not at the cost of undermining the very livelihoods that depend upon the natural resource base.

The Government of the Eastern Cape Province introduced the Massive Food Production programme, which is a cornerstone within the agrarian reform initiative of the Provincial Growth and Development Plan (PGDP). The programme has been going on for more than seven years, however little has been documented on its impact. The main objective of the study was to investigate the impact of the Massive Food Production Programme on the livelihoods in Nkonkobe Municipality. This study did not only investigate its impact on the participants but also assessed its impact on the recipient communities. Accordingly, the specific objectives of the study were to investigate the impact of the Massive Food Programme on the asset base of participants, the general livelihood activities, and the livelihood outcomes. Among other livelihood activities, the study made an in-depth investigation on the impact of the Massive Food Production Programme on maize crop production. This is because the Massive Food Production was aimed at maize crop production. Previous studies investigated on the indicators of success that can be used to measure the impact of this programme. After the wide-ranging evaluation of views, arguments and research findings, a model to measure impact of the programme was designed. The asset base improvement was used as the proxy of impact. Nine factors were selected from the principal component analysis of the many factors that were taken to affect participation. Three other dummy variables to proximate location, participation and group turnover were added to the regression model that was developed to measure impact. The DFID Sustainable Livelihood Framework was used to investigate the impact of the Massive Food Production Programme. This approach was used in both conceptualizing the study and the selection of variables. The DFID Sustainable Livelihood Approach was selected because unlike the CARE or UNDP Sustainable Livelihood models, it was designed for such purposes. Data collection was accomplished through observation, interviewing, and focus group discussions. The researcher also made use of project annual reports on change of livelihoods, baseline survey reports, project log frame, internal reports, work plans, budgets and mid-term evaluation reports as sources of secondary data. v The research findings were analysed using several analytical procedures, including the conventional descriptive statistics, principal components analysis, and linear regression analysis. The use of the different types of analysis was driven by the research questions under investigation and the theories on which they are based, and by the available data. The study revealed that to some extent the Massive Food Production Programme has managed to improve the asset base of the farmers. However, its impact on ensuring food security is still debatable. Findings of the study revealed that most of the participants and the non-participants communities experienced food shortages in the last season 2007/8 for at most three months. The study revealed that the highest agricultural income is from livestock sales. The varying locations showed the potential of livestock production. It is recommended that development agencies consider livestock production as an agricultural strategy with immense potential for enhancing sustaining rural livelihoods