Neuroendocrine tumors (NET´s) are often characterized by overproduction of peptide hormones. In spite of pronounced clinical symptoms, the tumor lesions can be small and difficult to detect. The general aim of this thesis was to investigate, in vitro and in vivo, some of the potential monoamine pathways present in NET´s, using radiolabeled tracers for positron emission tomography (PET), with the intention to explore the value of PET-imaging in the management of NET´s. We used the 11C-labeled serotonin precursor 5-hydroxy tryptophan (HTP) as the tracer for imaging of NET´s. More than 95% of the subjects displayed a high tracer uptake on PET and tumor detection rate with PET was higher in >50% of the patients compared both to computed tomography (CT) and somatostatin receptor scintigraphy (SRS). The primary tumor was imaged by PET in 84% (16/19), compared to 47% and 42% for SRS and CT, respectively. Tumor visibility was better with PET due to a higher tumor-to-background ratio and a better spatial resolution. There was a strong correlation (r = .907) between changes in urinary-5-hydroxy indole acetic acid and changes in transport rate of 11C-5-HTP during treatment, indicating the use of PET in treatment monitoring of NET´s. Pretreatment with carbidopa decreased the urinary radioactivity concentration four-fold and significantly (p<0.001) increased the tumor tracer uptake. This greatly improved image interpretation and tumor lesion detection. A screening for expression of monoamine pathways in NET´s revealed a high in vitro binding of the monoamineoxidase-A ligand harmine to tumor sections. PET examinations with 11C-harmine could visualize tumors in all patients, including non-functioning endocrine pancreatic tumors (EPT´s). Finally, the in vitro turnover and in vivo distribution of the amino acids glutamate, glutamine and aspartate was investigated. Limited uptake in vivo indicates the lack of utility for these substances as PET-tracers for imaging and characterization of NET´s.

Serotonin (5-HT) has been implicated in energy homeostasis. There is growing evidence that 5-HT, acting through the 5-HT1BR in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN), is important to this regulation. To investigate the cellular events underlying 5-HT1BR action, a PVN neuronal cell model was established. The mHypoA-2/30 cell line expresses a complement of markers and neuropeptides specifically localized to the PVN. 5-HT induces neuronal activation in a dose-dependent manner as determined by an elevation in cFos mRNA levels. As 5-HT exerted limited transcriptional control, the integrity of 5-HT signaling machinery was assessed. 5-HT signals through cAMP and calcium secondary messenger systems by suppressing cAMP and elevating intracellular calcium, effects that are mimicked by activating the 5-HT1BR and that are attenuated in the presence of inhibitors. These findings support the use of this novel PVN cell model for delineating components involved in direct 5-HT action in PVN neurons.

Serotonin (5-HT) has been implicated in energy homeostasis. There is growing evidence that 5-HT, acting through the 5-HT1BR in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN), is important to this regulation. To investigate the cellular events underlying 5-HT1BR action, a PVN neuronal cell model was established. The mHypoA-2/30 cell line expresses a complement of markers and neuropeptides specifically localized to the PVN. 5-HT induces neuronal activation in a dose-dependent manner as determined by an elevation in cFos mRNA levels. As 5-HT exerted limited transcriptional control, the integrity of 5-HT signaling machinery was assessed. 5-HT signals through cAMP and calcium secondary messenger systems by suppressing cAMP and elevating intracellular calcium, effects that are mimicked by activating the 5-HT1BR and that are attenuated in the presence of inhibitors. These findings support the use of this novel PVN cell model for delineating components involved in direct 5-HT action in PVN neurons.

Nous avons étudié les relations anatomiques entre les systèmes de neurotransmission à substance P (SP) et à sérotonine (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) dans le noyau du raphé dorsal (NRD) du rongeur, afin de mieux comprendre les interactions entre ces systèmes durant la régulation de l’humeur. Le NRD reçoit une innervation SP provenant de l’habenula, et le blocage pharmacologique des récepteurs neurokinine-1 (rNK1) de la SP aurait des effets antidépresseurs. Chez le rongeur, le traitement par les antagonistes des rNK1 s’accompagne d’une désensibilisation des autorécepteurs 5-HT1A de la 5-HT et d’une hausse de l’activité des neurones 5-HT dans le NRD, suggérant des interactions locales entre ces deux systèmes. Dans un premier temps, nous avons démontré par doubles marquages immunocytochimiques en microscopies optique, confocale et électronique, la présence du rNK1 dans une sous-population de neurones 5-HT du NRD caudal. Lors de l’analyse en microscopie électronique, nous avons pu constater que les rNK1 étaient principalement cytoplasmiques dans les neurones 5-HT et membranaires sur les neurones non 5-HT du noyau. Grâce à d’autres doubles marquages, nous avons aussi pu identifier les neurones non-5-HT porteurs de rNK1 comme étant GABAergiques. Nous avons ensuite combiné l’immunomarquage de la SP avec celui du rNK1, dans le but d’examiner les relations entre les terminaisons (varicosités *) axonales SP et les neurones 5-HT (pourvus de rNK1 cytoplasmiques du NRD caudal. En simple marquage de la SP, nous avons pu estimer à 41% la fréquence avec laquelle les terminaisons SP font synapse. Dans le matériel doublement marqué pour la SP et son récepteur, les terminaisons SP ont été fréquemment retrouvées en contact direct ou à proximité des dendrites munies de rNK1 cytoplasmiques, mais toujours éloignées des dendrites à rNK1 membranaires. Pour tester l’hypothèse d’une internalisation soutenue des rNK1 par la SP dans les neurones 5-HT, nous avons ensuite examiné la localisation subcellulaire du récepteur chez le rat traité avec un antagoniste du rNK1, le RP67580. La densité du marquage des rNK1 a été mesurée dans le cytoplasme et sur la membrane des deux types de dendrites (5-HT: rNK1 cytoplasmiques; non 5-HT: rNK1 membranaires). Une heure après une injection unique de l’antagoniste, la distribution du rNK1 est apparue inchangée dans les deux types de neurones (5-HT et non 5-HT). Par contre, après un traitement quotidien de 7 ou 21 jours avec l’antagoniste, nous avons mesuré une augmentation significative des densités cytoplasmique et membranaire du rNK1 dans les neurones 5-HT, sans aucun changement dans les neurones non 5-HT. Ces traitements ont aussi augmenté l’expression du gène rNK1 dans le NRD. Enfin, nous avons mesuré une hausse de la densité membranaire du rNK1 dans les neurones 5-HT, sans hausse de densité cytoplasmique, par suite d’une lésion bilatérale de l’habenula. Ces résultats confortent l’hypothèse d’une activation et d’une internalisation soutenues des rNK1 par la SP dans les neurones 5-HT du NRD caudal. Ils suggèrent aussi que le trafic des rNK1 dans les neurones 5-HT du NRD représente un mécanisme cellulaire en contrôle de l’activation du système 5-HT par les afférences SP en provenance de l’habenula. / We have studied in detail the relationships between substance P (SP) and serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) neurotransmission systems in the dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) of rodents, in order to further our understanding of their interaction during mood regulation. The DRN receives a SP innervation arising from the habenula and, in human, it is known that blockade of the neurokinin-1 receptor (NK1r) of SP by antagonists may have antidepressant effects. In rodents, treatment with NK1r antagonists is known to increase the firing of DRN 5-HT neurons and to induce a desensitization of their 5-HT1A autoreceptors, suggesting local interactions between the SP and 5-HT systems. In a first step, we were able to demonstrate by means of light, confocal, and electron microscopic immunocytochemistry, including double immunolabelings of NK1r and of the biosynthetic enzyme of 5-HT, tryptophane hydroxylase, the presence of NK1r in a subpopulation of 5-HT neurons in the caudal DRN of rat and mouse. After the dual immunolabelings for electron microscopy, we also found that NK1r was mostly cytoplasmic in 5-HT neurons while predominating on the plasma membrane of TPH negative (non 5-HT) neurons. Subsequently, in additionnal double labeling experiments, we were able to identify most if not all non 5-HT dendrites bearing membranous NK1r as GABAergic. In a second step, we combined the immunolabeling of SP with that of NK1r, in order to examine the relationships between SP axon terminals (varicosities *) and the two categories of DRN neurons (5-HT: cytoplasmic NK1r; non 5-HT: membranous NK1r). After single SP labeling, we could estimate the frequency with which SP terminals made synapse at 41%, at least. In the material doubly labeled for SP and NK1r, the SP terminals were often found in close contact or in the immediate proximity of dendrites endowed with cytoplasmic receptor, but never near non 5-HT dendrites bearing membrane bound receptors. To test the hypothesis of a sustained internalization of NK1r in 5-HT neurons, we then tested the effects of RP67580, a selective NK1r antagonist, on the subcellular localization of the receptor. One hour after administration of a single dose, the NK1r distribution was unchanged in both types of dendrites (5-HT and non 5-HT). However, after administration for 7 (subchronic) or 21 (chronic) days, the cytoplasmic and the membrane densities of NK1r were significantly increased in 5-HT dendrites, without any change in non 5-HT dendrites. These treatments also increased NK1r gene expression in the caudal DRN. Lastly, a significant increase in the membrane density of NK1r was measured in the 5-HT neurons, without any increase of the cytoplamic density, following bilateral electrolytic lesioning of the habenula. These results strenghtened the hypothesis of a sustained activation and internalization of NK1r by SP in 5-HT neurons of the caudal DRN. They also suggested that trafficking of NK1r in these cells might represent a cellular mechanism in control of the activation of the 5-HT system by SP afferents from the habebula.

La voie mésocorticolimbique est constitutée d’un ensemble d’éléments nerveux issus de l’aire tegmentaire ventrale mésencéphalique et projettant vers des régions corticales et sous-corticales. Les neurones à dopamine (DA) qui en font partie modulent plusieurs fonctions cognitives dont l’attention, l’apprentissage et la récompense. L’activité nerveuse des cellules à DA augmente lorsque l’organisme anticipe et reçoit une récompense, ainsi qu’au cours de la phase d’apprentissage des comportements d’appétence. Or, si l’activité dopaminergique de la voie mésocorticolimbique est désordonnée, voire aberrante, des stimuli neutres deviennent saillants et prennent une signification erronée. Cette anomalie fonctionnelle du système dopaminergique pourrait être à l’origine des symptômes psychotiques observés dans la schizophrénie. Cette hypothèse est renforcée par le fait que les médicaments antipsychotiques efficaces ont tous une activité antagoniste aux récepteurs à DA de type 2 (D2); les antipsychotiques dits classiques (i.e. halopéridole) possèdent une forte affinité pour les récepteurs D2 tandis que les antipsychotiques dits atypiques (i.e. clozapine) présentent une plus forte affinité pour les récepteurs à sérotonine de type 2a (5-HT2a) que pour les récepteurs D2. Les antipsychotiques atypiques semblent plus efficaces contre les symptômes négatifs (i.e. anhédonie) de la schizophrénie et induisent moins d’effets moteurs extrapyramidaux et de dysphorie que les antipsychotiques classiques. Il a été proposé que l’efficacité des antipsychotiques atypiques soit expliqué par leur double action antagoniste aux récepteurs 5-HT2a et D2. Afin de mieux comprendre les mécanismes de ces médicaments, nous avons étudié leurs effets sur la récompense en utilisant le modèle d’autostimulation intracérébrale (ASI) chez le rongeur. Le but de la première étude était d’évaluer l’effet d’un antagoniste sélectif des récepteurs 5-HT2a, le M100907, sur la récompense et sur l’atténuation de la récompense induite par l’halopéridole. L’hypothèse était que l’atténuation de la récompense induite par l’ajout du M100907 à l’halopéridole serait similaire à celle induite par la clozapine. Dans une seconde étude, l’effet sur la récompense d’un agoniste partiel aux récepteurs D2, l’OSU-6162, a été caractérisé sous deux conditions : i) en condition de base et ii) lorsque la neurotransmission dopaminergique est altérée par l’administration systémique de quinpirole, un agoniste des récepteurs D2/D3. Les hypothèses étaient que l’OSU-6162 i) atténuerait la récompense induite par la stimulation et ii) empêcherait l’atténuation et la facilitation de la récompense induites par le quinpirole. Les données obtenues montrent que le M100907 n’altère pas la récompense par lui-même mais réduit l’atténuation de la récompense induite par l’halopéridole. La co-administration du M100907 et de l’halopéridole induit une atténuation de la récompense d’amplitude similaire à celle induite par la clozapine, ce qui suggère que l’activité antagoniste aux récepteurs 5-HT2a de la clozapine contribue à son efficacité. Les données de la seconde étude montrent que l’OSU-6162 atténue la récompense, de manière dose-dépendante, ainsi que la facilitation, mais pas l’atténuation de la récompense induite par le quinpirole. Cette dernière observation suggère que l’OSU-6162 agit comme un antagoniste fonctionnel aux récepteurs D2 post-synaptiques. Un ensemble de données suggèrent que le comportement d’ASI constitue un modèle valide permettant d’évaluer l’efficacité antipsychotique potentielle de nouvelles molécules. Le comportement d’ASI est atténué par les antipsychotiques cliniquement efficaces mais est peu ou pas modifié par des molécules dépourvues d’activité antipsychotique. Les données obtenues dans cette thèse permettent de supposer que l’OSU-6162 possède une activité antipsychotique de nature atypique, et cela sans altérer la neurotransmission sérotoninergique. / The mesocorticolimbic pathway is composed of neural elements that originate in the mesencephalic ventral tegmental area and project to cortical and sub-cortical areas. Dopamine (DA) neurons that constitute a major portion of this pathway play a role in several cognitive functions such as the attention, learning and reward. DA cell activity increases when the organism anticipates and receives a reward, as well as during the learning phase of appetitive behaviors. When dopaminergic impulse flow becomes aberrant, stimuli that should be considered as neurtral become salient and acquire an improper signification. This functional abnormality of the dopaminergic system underlies psychotic symptoms that are observed in schizophrenia. This hypothesis is reinforced by the fact that clinically effective antipsychotic drugs all display antagonism at the D2 sub-type of DA receptors. Classical antipsychotic drugs (i.e. haloperidol) possess a high affinity for D2 receptors while atypical antipsychotic drugs (i.e. clozapine) possess a higher affinity for type 2a (5-HT2a) serotonin receptors than for D2 receptors. Atypical antipsychotics seem more effective against negative symptoms (i.e. anhedonia) of schizophrenia and induce less extrapyramidal side effects and dysphoria than classical antipsychotics. It has been proposed that this efficacy of atypical antipsychotics is explained by their antagonistic action at both, the 5-HT2a and the D2 receptors. To better understand the mechanisms of actions of these drugs, we studied their effects on reward using the intracranial self-stimulation (ICSS) model in rodents. The aim of a first study was to evaluate the effect of a selective 5-HT2a receptor antagonist, M100907, on the reward, and on the reward attenuation induced by haloperidol. The hypothesis was that the reward attenuation induced by the addition of M100907 to haloperidol is similar to the reward attenuation induced by clozapine alone. In a second study, the effect on reward of a D2 receptor partial agonist, OSU-6162, was characterized under two conditions: i) a basal condition and ii) under a state of abnormal dopaminergic neurotransmission elicited by systemic administration of quinpirole, a D2/D3 agonist. The hypotheses were that OSU-6162 i) should attenuate stimulation-induced reward and ii) prevent quinpirole-induced reward attenuation and reward facilitation. Results showed that M100907, when give alone, did not alter reward; however when administered with haloperidol reduced the reward attenuation. Co-administration of M100907 and haloperidol induced a reward attenuation of a similar amplitude to that of clozapine, suggesting that 5-HT2a antagonism activity of this latter drug contributes to its effects on reward. Results from the second study showed that OSU-6162 dose-orderly attenuates reward and quinpirole-induced reward facilitation; however it did not reduce quinpirole-induced reward attenuation. This last observation suggests that OSU-6162 acts like a functional antagonist at post-synaptic D2 receptors. A large body of data suggests that the ICSS behavior constitutes a valid model to evaluate the antipsychotic potential of new compounds. ICSS behavior is attenuated by clinically effective antipsychotics is weakly, or not at all, altered by compounds without antipsychotic activity. Results obtained in this thesis allow us to predict that OSU-6162 possesses an antipsychotic activity that would be similar to that of atypical, without altering the serotonergic neurotransmission.

Biochemical processes all involve associations and dissociations of chemical entities. Understanding these is of substantial importance for many modern pharmaceutical applications. In this thesis, longstanding problems with regard to ligand binding are treated with computational methods, applied to proteins of key pharmaceutical importance. Homology modeling, docking, molecular dynamics simulations and free-energy calculations are used here for quantitative characterization of ligand binding to proteins. By combining computational tools, valuable contributions have been made for pharmaceutically relevant areas: a neglected tropical disease, an ion channel anti-drug-target, and GPCR drug-targets. We report three compounds inhibiting cruzain, the main cysteine protease of the protozoa causing Chagas’ disease. The compounds were found through an extensive virtual screening study and validated with experimental enzymatic assays. The compounds inhibit the enzyme in the μM-range and are therefore valuable in further lead optimization studies. A high-resolution crystal structure of the BRICHOS domain is reported, together with molecular dynamics simulations and hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry studies. This work revealed a plausible mechanism for how the chaperone activity of the domain may operate. Rationalization of structure-activity relationships for a set of analogous blockers of the hERG potassium channel is given. A homology model of the ion channel was used for docking compounds and molecular dynamics simulations together with the linear interaction energy method employed for calculating the binding free-energies. The three-dimensional coordinates of two GPCRs, 5HT1B and 5HT2B, were derived from homology modeling and evaluated in the GPCR Dock 2013 assessment. Our models were in good correlation with the experimental structures and all of them placed among the top quarter of all models assessed.  Finally, a computational method, based on molecular dynamics free-energy calculations, for performing alanine scanning was validated with the A2A adenosine receptor bound to either agonist or antagonist. The calculated binding free-energies were found to be in good agreement with experimental data and the method was subsequently extended to non-alanine mutations. With extensive experimental mutation data, this scheme is a valuable tool for quantitative understanding of ligand binding and can ultimately be used for structure-based drug design.

Features of impulsivity underlie multiple psychological disorders. The body of work examining impulsivity has largely focussed on self-report measurement and has incorporated psychological constructs without reference to the broader biological factors that may influence impulsive behaviour. Two studies were conducted to examine whether environmental stress and genetic status associated with dopaminergic and serotonergic function (DRD2, ANKK1 and 5HT2AR genotypes) were predictive of dimensions of impulsivity and risky behaviour (alcohol use). The two studies used a multi-method approach in a non-clinical community sample of young adults (aged 17-25 years). Dopamine is integral to the two leading theories of impulsive personality, Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory and Cloninger's Psychobiological model of personality. Dopamine plays a crucial role in reward reinforcement circuits in the brain. The A1 allele of the ANKK1 gene (also referred to as TaqIA of the DRD2 gene region) and the CC genotype of the C957T polymorphism of the DRD2 gene have both been associated with reduced D2 dopamine receptor density in key structures linked to brain reward. In addition, a strong body of evidence implicates their involvement in a number of clinical disorders associated with impulsivity. Serotonin function has also been associated with impulsivity in Cloninger's theory and there is also evidence of associations of two polymorphisms of the 2A serotonin receptor gene (5HT2AR T102C and -1438A/G SNPs) with impulsivity. Acute and chronic forms of stress are also important correlates of impulsive behaviour and the two studies directly examined the relationship between genotype, stress and impulsivity. Study 1 (N=180) utilised a cross-sectional design and examined interactions between these polymorphisms and chronic stress exposure on key impulsivity dimensions of reward sensitivity, Novelty Seeking and rash impulsiveness. Participants completed psychological questionnaires measuring chronic stress, dimensions of impulsivity, mood and substance use and provided mouth swab samples of buccal mucosal cells for DNA analysis. The study confirmed the association between A1 and CC allelic status and chronic stress being associated with harm avoidance and sensitivity to punishment. This suggests a role for both dopamine and background stress in impulsive behaviour. Study 2 (N=73) built upon this questionnaire research in the laboratory by utilising experimental psychological paradigms of impulsive behaviour and experimentally manipulating acute stress. Study 2 employed a mixed experimental design with a sub-sample of those studied in the cross-sectional sample. These behavioural paradigms included pre- and post- stress induction administration of the Card Arranging Reward Responsiveness Objective Test (capturing behavioural approach in the presence of reward cues, presumed to reflect reward sensitivity) and post-induction delay discounting and response inhibition measures. Study 2 confirmed the role of one of the two dopamine-related polymorphisms, with those with A1+ allelic status demonstrating lower reward responsiveness prior to rest or stress induction, which was overcome in the second administration of this task, independent of environment. A1+ allelic individuals also demonstrated significantly poorer response inhibition independent of stress, further confirming the association between A1+ allelic status and impulsivity. Those with CC allelic status showed an increase in reward responsiveness only in the stress induction condition. Together, results from the two studies inform the development of a multidimensional model of impulsivity that captures gene-environment influences on discrete aspects of impulsive personality and behaviour. Further refinement of this model may lead to the development of more effective customised prevention and treatment interventions for clinically disordered impulsivity. The implications of dopaminergic systems and stress in understanding disorders such as ADHD and substance dependence are discussed.

Thesis (Ph.D.); Submitted to Iowa State Univ., Ames, IA (US); 12 Dec 2003. / Published through the Information Bridge: DOE Scientific and Technical Information. "IS-T 2604" Jason Alan Gruenhagen. 12/12/2003. Report is also available in paper and microfiche from NTIS.

As rãs são utilizadas como modelos experimentais em diferentes situações experimentais. Uma delas é o estudo dos efeitos da seção do nervo isquiático (SNI) sobre o tecido nervoso. Essa ampla utilização desses animais como modelos experimentais justifica a realização de estudos que visam o conhecimento morfofuncional de seus tecidos. Inúmeros estudos mostram que, assim como nos mamíferos, o principal substrato energético no tecido nervoso de rãs é a glicose. Porém, é desconhecida a distribuição dos transportadores de glicose no tecido nervoso de rãs, bem como se a SNI altera esse transporte. Outra questão em aberto é se o lactato, cuja concentração está aumentada no plasma de rãs durante períodos de hibernação e após atividades motoras, é usado como substrato energético pelo tecido nervoso, o que está demonstrado em outras espécies de vertebrados. É desconhecida ainda no gânglio da raiz dorsal (GRD) de rãs a distribuição e os efeitos da SNT sobre a reação à nicotinamida adenina dinucleotídeo fosfato diaforase (NADPH-diaforase), enzima considerada equivalente a óxido nítrico sintase, responsável pela síntese de óxido nítrico, e a reação ao ácido periódico-reativo de Schiff (PAS), que indica a presença de mucopolissarídeos, incluindo o glicogênio, uma importante reserva energética no tecido nervoso de rãs. Desconhece-se também a distribuição e os efeitos da SNT sobre a imunorreatividade à serotonina, importante molécula com função neurotransmissora e/ou moduladora no sistema nervoso, tirosina hidroxilase, enzima limitante na síntese de catecolaminas, moléculas com diversos papéis fisiológicos, incluindo ação neurotransmissora e/ou neuromoduladora no tecido nervoso, e c-Fos, proteína considerada marcadora de ativação neural por estimulação nociva. Outras questões ainda em aberto são os efeitos da SNT sobre: a captação do análogo da glicose 1-14C 2-deoxi-D-glicose (14C-2-DG) e concentração plasmática de glicose e lactato; se os tipos II e III de células gliais satélites (CGSs), recentemente descritas no GRD de coelho, estão presentes nesse gânglio de rãs; e os efeitos da SNT sobre a ultraestrutura de CGSs e neurônios do GRD. Assim, o objetivo dessa tese foi determinar: 1) a ultraestrutura de neurônios e CGSs; 2) a distribuição das reações à NADPH-diaforase e PAS, e a imunoistoquímica à serotonina, tirosina hidroxilase, c-Fos e transportadores de glicose tipo 1 e 3; e 3) a captação de 14C-2-DG, na presença e ausência de lactato, em GRD de rãs Lithobates catesbianus com e sem SNI. A escolha pelos transportadores de glicose tipos 1 e 3 foi pelo fato de ocorrerem na membrana de endotélio, células gliais e de neurônios. Para a realização do estudo inicialmente 12 rãs Lithobates catesbianus, adultas, machos, com peso de 100-200g, que não sofreram qualquer manipulação cirúrgica foram mortas por decapitação e os gânglios das raízes dorsais (GRDs) do nervo isquiático retirados e preparados para análises ultraestrutural, histoquímica à NADPH-diaforase e PAS, e imunoistoquímica à serotonina, tirosina hidroxilase e transportadores de glicose dos tipos 1 e 3. Feito isso, 18 outras rãs, nas mesmas condições físicas, foram divididas em três grupos experimentais (n=6/grupo): controle (rãs que não sofreram qualquer manipulação cirúrgica), sham (rãs onde foram efetuados apenas os procedimentos para isolamento do nervo isquiático) e SNI (rãs que tiveram o nervo isquiático direito totalmente seccionado em seu tronco comum). Esses animais foram mortos três dias após a intervenção cirúrgica e seus GRDs do nervo isquiático usados para demonstrar os efeitos da secção nervosa sobre a ultraestrutura, a reação à NADPH-diaforase, e a imunoistoquímica à serotonina, tirosina hidroxilase, c-Fos e transportadores de glicose dos tipos 1 e 3 no GRD. Outros 20 animais, divididos nos mesmos grupos experimentais, foram usados para demonstrar os efeitos da SNI sobre a captação de 14C-2-DG, na presença ou ausência de lactato, e a taxa de produção de 14CO2 a partir de 14C-L-lactato e de 14C-glicose no GRD. Essas rãs foram usadas ainda para demonstrar os efeitos da denervação periférica sobre a concentração plasmática de glicose e lactato. Nossos resultados mostraram que os neurônios sensoriais do GRD de rã Lithobates catesbianus tiveram distribuição, diâmetro e morfologia que foi similar àquela descrita para essas células em gânglio de mamíferos. As CGSs apresentaram morfologia similar àquela descrita para essas células em gânglios de outras espécies de vertebrados. As células dos tipos II e III, observadas no GRD de coelho, não ocorreram no GRD de Lithobates catesbianus. O padrão de atividade à NADPH-diaforase e a distribuição da imunorreatividade à serotonina, tirosina hidroxilase e Glut 1 e 3 foram também similares ao descrito em mamíferos. Pela primeira vez foi demonstrada, em anfíbios, a presença de reação à NADPH-diaforase em CGCs do GRD. A captação de 14C-2-DG foi reduzida quando o lactato foi acrescentado ao meio de incubação. As alterações induzidas pela SNI foram também similares àquelas descritas nos mamíferos. Houve acréscimo no número de mitocôndrias, retículo endoplasmático, ribossomas e filamentos no citoplasma das CGSs, mais neurônios e CGCs com reação positiva à NADPH-diaforase, um maior número de prolongamentos imunorreativos à tirosina hidroxilase em torno de somas de neurônios sensoriais, e mais núcleos neuronais imunorreativos a c-Fos. Nenhuma alteração ocorreu na imunorreatividade a serotonina e transportadores de glicose. Houve aumento na captação de 14C-2-DG, que foi reduzido quando o lactato foi acrescentado ao meio de incubação. Porém, a formação de 14CO2 a partir de 14C-L-lactato e de 14C-glicose não alterou nessas condições. Todavia, diferentemente dos mamíferos, a SNI não provocou mudança no número de CGCs no GRD, mostrando uma peculiaridade na resposta das rãs à SNI. Assim, nosso estudo reforça o uso de rãs como modelo experimental para estudo dos efeitos da SNI, um modelo de dor fantasma, sobre o tecido nervoso. Porém, dada a diferença peculiar ocorrida no GRD de rãs com SNI, é evidente a necessidade de mais conhecimento dos efeitos dessa situação experimental nesses animais. / Frogs have been used as experimental models in different experimental situations. One of these is the study of the effects of the sciatic nerve transection (SNT) on the nerve tissue. The wide use of these animals as experimental models justifies the studies aimed at morphofunctionally understanding of their tissues. Numerous studies have shown that glucose is the main energy substrate in the nerve tissue of frogs as well as in mammals. However, the distribution of glucose transporters in the nerve tissue of frogs is unknown as well as whether SNT alters such transportation. Another unanswered question is whether the lactate, whose concentration is increased in the frog plasma during hibernation periods and after motor activities, is used as an energy substrate by the nerve tissue, which has been demonstrated in other vertebrate species. In the dorsal root ganglion (DRG) cells of frogs are still unknown the distribution and effects of SNT on the reaction of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase (NADPH-diaphorase), an enzyme that is considered equivalent to nitric oxide synthase, responsible for the synthesis of nitric oxide, and on the reaction of periodic acid-Schiff (PAS), which indicates the presence of mucopolysaccharides, including glycogen, an important energy reserve in frog nerve tissue. Moreover, the distribution and effects of SNT on immunoreactivity to serotonin, an important molecule that functions as a neurotransmitter and / or neuromodulator in the nervous system, tyrosine hydroxylase, the rate-limiting enzyme in catecholamine biosynthesis, molecules with various physiological roles, including neurotransmitter and / or neuromodulator action in the nerve tissue, and c-Fos, a protein that is regarded as a marker of neuronal activation by noxious stimulation are also unknown. Other questions regarding is the effect of SNT on the uptake of glucose analogue 2-Deoxy-D-glucose-1-14C (14C-2-DG) and glucose and lactate concentration plasma; whether the types II and III of satellite glial cells (SGCs), recently described in rabbit DRG, are present in this ganglion of frogs; and the effects of SNT on the ultrastructure of SGCs and DRG neurons remain unanswered as well. Thus, this thesis aimed to determine: 1) the ultrastructure of neurons and SGCs; 2) the distribution of NADPH-diaphorase and PAS reaction, and immunohistochemistry for serotonin, tyrosine hydroxylase, c-Fos and glucose transporters types 1 and 3; and 3) the uptake of 2-DG-14C, in the presence and absence of lactate, in DRG of frogs, Lithobates catesbianus, with and without SNT. Glucose transporters types 1 and 3 were chosen because they occur in the membrane of endothelial cells, glial cells and neurons. Initially, 12 adult male frogs, Lithobates catesbianus, weighing 100-200g, not having undergone any previous surgical manipulation, were killed by decapitation. The DRGs of the sciatic nerve were removed and prepared for ultrastructural analysis, histochemistry of NADPH-diaphorase and PAS, and immunohistochemistry for serotonin, tyrosine hydroxylase and glucose transporters types 1 and 3. After that, 18 other frogs in the same physical conditions were divided into three experimental groups (n = 6/group): control group (frogs not subjected to any surgical manipulation), sham (frogs in which only surgical procedures for isolating the sciatic nerve were performed), and SNT (frogs in which the right sciatic nerve was completely transected). These animals were killed three days after the procedure, and their sciatic nerve DRGs used to demonstrate the effects of nerve transection on the ultrastructure, NADPH-diaphorase reaction, and immunohistochemical serotonin, tyrosine hydroxylase, c-Fos and glucose transporters types 1 and 3 in the DRG. Other 20 animals, divided into the same experimental groups, were used to demonstrate the effects of SNI on the uptake of 14C-2-DG in the presence or absence of lactate, the production rate of 14CO2 from 14C-L-lactate and 14C-glucose in the DRG. These frogs were used to further demonstrate the effects of peripheral denervation on plasma glucose and lactate levels. Our results have demonstrated that sensory neurons of bullfrog, Lithobates catesbianus, DRG showed distribution, diameter and morphology similar to those described for these ganglion cells in mammals. The CGSs showed morphology similar to that described for these cells in the lymph nodes of other vertebrate species. Cells types II and III, observed in rabbit DRG did not occur in the Lithobates catesbianus DRG. The pattern of NADPH-diaphorase activity and distribution of immunoreactivity of serotonin, tyrosine hydroxylase and Glut 1 and 3 were also similar to those described in mammals. For the first time, it has been demonstrated the presence of NADPH-diaphorase reaction on SGCs of DRG in amphibians. The uptake of 14C-2-DG was reduced when lactate was added to the incubation medium. SNT-induced changes were also similar to those ones described in mammals. There was an increase in the number of mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes and filaments in the SGCs cytoplasm; more neurons and SGCs with positive reaction to NADPH-diaphorase; a greater number of tyrosine hydroxylase immunoreactive extensions around body sensory neurons; and more c-Fos immunoreactivity in neuronal nuclei. No changes occurred in serotonin immunoreactivity and glucose transporters. There was an increase in the uptake of 14C-2-DG, which was reduced when lactate was added to the incubation medium. However, the formation of 14C-2-DG from 14C-L-lactato and glucose did not change under these conditions. Unlike mammals, SNT caused no change in the number of SGCs in DRG, showing a peculiarity in the response of frogs to SNT. Therefore, our study supports the use of frogs as an experimental model to study the effects of SNT, a model of phantom pain on the nerve tissue. However, given the peculiar differences occurred in the DRG of frogs with SNT, it is clearly necessary to carry out further studies to better understand the effects of an experimental situation like this in such animals.

No description available.