Pre-mRNA splicing is an important level in posttranscriptional gene regulation that is essential for accurate protein synthesis and generating protein diversity. The abundance of cryptic splice sites and long intronic DNA sequences makes their splicing a complex one. The identification of correct exons and introns needs additional information in the form of splicing regulatory elements (SREs) along with canonical splice signals. The interplay among these SREs and the trans factors (which bind to SREs) gives the identity to introns and exons which in turn leads to precise pre-mRNA splicing. Previous studies from our laboratory showed, that when expressed in mammalian cells from an expression vector, PDGF-B ORF was re-spliced at 4/5 exon junction with the downstream SV40 splice acceptor site in the vector. However, deletion of the 66-nt PDGF-B 3’ UTR region resulted in about 25% reduction in re-splicing. Sequence analysis of this region revealed presence of binding sites for splicing factors ASF/SF2 and SRp55, and an AU-rich element (ARE), mutation each of which affected re-splicing partially. In mammals, AREs are commonly found in the 3’UTR of mRNAs encoding proteins involved in diverse functions and are involved in selective mRNA degradation. Several ARE binding proteins are crucial for ARE’s function. Since mutation of the single ARE in the 3’UTR region altered the re-splicing efficiency, the role of AU-rich elements and ARE-binding proteins (AU-BPs) in modulation of splicing was investigated using siRNAs against AU-BPs, BRF1, hnRNPD, HuR, GAPDH and TTP. Down regulation of expression of these factors indeed affected the level of re-spliced product. We have studied the interactions between the full-length splicing factors (U1-70K and U2AF35) and the AU-BPs (BRF1, hnRNPD and HuR) as well as among the AU-BPs using three different assay methods: Yeast-two hybrid, co-immunoprecipitation and pull down assays. Our study has revealed that the BRF1 interacts with U1-70K and U2AF35 as well as the other AU-BPs hnRNPD and HuR but with different affinities. We have also analyzed the ability of AU-BPs to interact with SR proteins SRp20 and 9G8. We did find strong interaction of BRF1 with SRp20 and 9G8. Generation of a large number of nested deletion mutants of all the proteins allowed us to identify the interaction regions on the surface of BRF1, U1-70K, hnRNPD, U2AF35 and HuR. The results of Y2H analyses were further confirmed by pull down assay using purified interacting regions. It was found that a single region from aa 181-254 in BRF1 interacts with multiple partners i.e., splicing factors and the AU-BP hnRNPD. However, the RNA-binding zinc-finger domain from residue 120-181 independently interacts with HuR. Further, the multiple protein interacting region (MPIR) (aa 181-254) in BRF1 exhibits different affinities towards its interacting partners with that for U1-70K and hnRNPD being stronger than that for U2AF35 and HuR. This observation suggests that BRF1 activity can be modulated by interaction with different partners at different sites. U1-70K interacted only with BRF1 among the proteins tested in this study and this interaction appears to be RNA independent .This could have implications in splice site selection and RNA stability since BRF1 has been shown to promote RNA degradation. While the Arg/Glu-rich C-terminal region in U1-70K is sufficient for its interaction with BRF1, U2AF35 requires both the zinc-finger 2 and the arg/Gly/Ser-rich C-terminal regions for its association with BRF1. hnRNPD also interacts with multiple partners that include BRF1, HuR and U2AF35 using the N-terminal region that harbors a Ala-rich domain. The interaction of hnRNPD with HuR is RNA dependent while with BRF1 and U2AF35, it is RNA independentt. Further, its interaction with all the partners is equally strong. This suggests that hnRNPD could exert differential influence depending on the context of its interaction and abundance of the interacting partner. HuR, primarily known as an mRNA stabilizing factor, interacts with both BRF1 and hnRNPD with equal affinity involving the hinge region, the interaction with the former being RNA-independent and the later being RNA-dependent. This differential RNA-dependent and independent interactions with the two AU-BPs using a single interacting domain suggests a balancing act of HuR on the activities of BRF1 and hnRNPD. These interactions can further be differentially modulated by posttranslational modifications on one or all of the interacting partners depending on the physiological status of the cell. We have also analyzed the multiple protein complexes formed in absence of cellular RNA. Though we are unable to see direct protein-protein interaction between HuR and U1-70K in Yeast two hybrid analysis, we could detect the presence of U1-70K in HuR immunoprecipitate. It appears that U1-70K associates with HuR via BRF. We also detected the presence of HuR in U1-70K complexes which could be due to its association with BRF1. We are unable to find hnRNPD and U2AF35 in these complexes indicating that they may have been excluded. In anti-U2AF35 immunoprecipitates, we detected the presence of U1-70K as well as hnRNPD but no HuR. This may be due to RNase treatment as hnRNPD and HuR interactions are RNA dependent. Our findings that AU-rich elements in conjunction with AU-BPs function as intronic splicing modulators or enhancers, reveal hitherto unidentified new players in the poorly understood complex mechanisms that mediate alternative splicing. The possibility of dynamic nature of the interactions among splicing factors and AU-BPs mediated by post-translational modifications provide a basis for rapid cellular responses to changing environmental cues through generation of differentially spliced mRNAs and corresponding protein products that differ in their stability and hence their relative abundance. Our results also unfold enormous possibilities for future investigations on interactions among the many splicing factors and AU-BPs, and in understanding these complex interactions in modulation of pre-mRNA splicing, mRNA translation and degradation. The finding of coupling of AU-BPs to splicing machinery could further lead to better understanding of the mechanism of AU-BP-mediated targeting of mRNAs to processing bodies and ultimate degradation of the mRNAs.

<p>ASF/SF2 is an essential splicing factor, required for constitutive splicing, and functioning as a regulator of alternative splicing. ASF/SF2 is modular in structure and contains two amino-terminal RNA binding domains (RBD1 and RBD2), and a carboxy-terminal RS domain. The results from my studies show that the different activities of ASF/SF2 as a regulator of alternative 5’ and 3’ splice site selection can be attributed to distinct domains of ASF/SF2.</p><p>I show that ASF/SF2-RBD2 is both necessary and sufficient to reproduce the splicing repressor function of ASF/SF2. A SWQDLKD motif was shown to be essential for the splicing repressor activity of ASF/SF2. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that ASF/SF2 encodes for distinct domains responsible for its function as a splicing enhancer (the RS domain) or a splicing repressor (the RBD2) protein. Using a model transcript containing two competing 3’ splice sites it was further demonstrated that the activity of ASF/SF2 as a regulator of alternative 3’ splice site selection was directional: i.e. resulting in RS or RBD1 mediated activation of upstream 3’ splice site selection while simultaneously causing an RBD2 mediated repression of downstream 3’ splice site usage.</p><p>In alternative 5’ splice site selection, the RBD2 alone was sufficient to reproduce the activity of the full-length protein as an inducer of proximal 5’ splice site usage, while RBD1 had the opposite effect and induced distal 5’ splice site selection. The conserved SWQDLKD motif and the RNP-1 type RNA recognition motif in ASF/SF2-RBD2 were both essential for this induction. The activity of the ASF/SF2-RBD2 domain as a regulator of alternative 5’ splice site was shown to correlate with the RNA binding capacity of the domain.</p><p>Collectively, my results suggest that the RBD2 domain in ASF/SF2 plays the most decisive role in the alternative 5’ and 3’ splice site regulatory activities of ASF/SF2.</p>

ASF/SF2 is an essential splicing factor, required for constitutive splicing, and functioning as a regulator of alternative splicing. ASF/SF2 is modular in structure and contains two amino-terminal RNA binding domains (RBD1 and RBD2), and a carboxy-terminal RS domain. The results from my studies show that the different activities of ASF/SF2 as a regulator of alternative 5’ and 3’ splice site selection can be attributed to distinct domains of ASF/SF2. I show that ASF/SF2-RBD2 is both necessary and sufficient to reproduce the splicing repressor function of ASF/SF2. A SWQDLKD motif was shown to be essential for the splicing repressor activity of ASF/SF2. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that ASF/SF2 encodes for distinct domains responsible for its function as a splicing enhancer (the RS domain) or a splicing repressor (the RBD2) protein. Using a model transcript containing two competing 3’ splice sites it was further demonstrated that the activity of ASF/SF2 as a regulator of alternative 3’ splice site selection was directional: i.e. resulting in RS or RBD1 mediated activation of upstream 3’ splice site selection while simultaneously causing an RBD2 mediated repression of downstream 3’ splice site usage. In alternative 5’ splice site selection, the RBD2 alone was sufficient to reproduce the activity of the full-length protein as an inducer of proximal 5’ splice site usage, while RBD1 had the opposite effect and induced distal 5’ splice site selection. The conserved SWQDLKD motif and the RNP-1 type RNA recognition motif in ASF/SF2-RBD2 were both essential for this induction. The activity of the ASF/SF2-RBD2 domain as a regulator of alternative 5’ splice site was shown to correlate with the RNA binding capacity of the domain. Collectively, my results suggest that the RBD2 domain in ASF/SF2 plays the most decisive role in the alternative 5’ and 3’ splice site regulatory activities of ASF/SF2.

L'estudi de les diferències fenotípiques entre espècies, i entre individus, ha estat una de les grans qüestions fonamentals en els camps de la biologia evolutiva i la genètica. Ben aviat, es va fer palès que la regulació de l’expressió gènica tindria un paper clau en establir aquestes diferències de complexitat. L’adveniment de les tècniques massives de seqüenciació no van sinó confirmar aquesta visió primerenca. Avui dia coneixem un grapat de mecanismes que determinen aquestes diferències entre organismes, com són la divergència de seqüència proteica, la duplicació gènica o la divergència de la regió cis-reguladora, entre d’altres. En la darrera dècada, l’splicing alternatiu ha anat afermant-se com a mecanisme post-transcripcional freqüent i ha anat prenent protagonisme com a font de variabilitat de transcrits i isoformes proteiques, a més a més de jugar un paper regulador de l’expressió gènica. Per tant, l’splicing alternatiu és un ferm candidat a introduir diferències substancials al proteoma que expliquin la diversitat fenotípica entre organismes. Així doncs, aquest treball es va marcar com a objectiu aclarir fins a quin punt la variabilitat que introduïa l’splicing alternatiu tenia implicacions en el fenotip, quina era la seva conservació i si actuava de manera coordinada o independent amb d’altres mecanismes. En primer lloc, vam estudiar la relació que hi havia entre l’splicing alternatiu i les altres fonts moleculars de diversitat fenotípica i si era possible que l’splicing alternatiu pogués introduir variabilitat amb implicacions fenotípiques per si sola. A continuació, ens vam centrar en els mecanismes reguladors de l’expressió gènica basats en splicing alternatiu, analitzant les seves propietats i la seva conservació entre espècies. Finalment, vam examinar la implicació de l’splicing alternatiu en el fenomen de la domin{ncia gènica, ja que és un procés conegut que determina diferències fenotípiques intraespecífiques. El primer pas fou, doncs, comparar l’splicing alternatiu amb d’altres fonts moleculars de diferències fenotípiques: les divergències de la seqüència proteica, de la regió cis-reguladora del gen i de l’expressió gènica entre hum{ i ratolí. En un estudi massiu de les propietats de tots aquests fenòmens entre 13970 parelles d’ortòlegs, vam observar que l’splicing alternatiu podia introduir diferències abans que les altres variables poguessin fer-ho. Quan les identitats de seqüència proteica o de la regió cis-reguladora eren massa elevades com per introduir diferències, l’splicing alternatiu ja presentava patrons prou diferents en la concurrència d’splicing entre hum{ i ratolí. A més a més, la relació entre l’equivalència d’isoformes amb aquestes divergències també va resultar ser molt lleu, fet que ens va fer pensar que l’splicing alternatiu pot introduir isoformes específiques que contribueixin a les diferències entre espècies abans que les altres divergències puguin fer-ho. Pel que fa al segon bloc, vam investigar la conservació i propietats dels mecanismes reguladors de l’expressió gènica basats en AS. Primer de tot, vam confirmar la independència entre les divergències d’expressió gènica i l’splicing alternatiu, fet que ens indica que actuen a diferents nivells. A continuació, vam definir i classificar aquests mecanismes reguladors depenent com l’splicing alternatiu alterava l’arquitectura de dominis de les isoformes. La conservació d’aquests efectes, dels mecanismes reguladors basats en AS, va resultar ser baixa per tots els casos. Pel que fa als esdeveniments on es perdien un o més dominis a les isoformes alternatives, a més a més de ser baixa la conservació del mecanisme, també ho va ser l’equivalència dels esdeveniments d’splicing alternatiu. Així, tot i tenir efectes a nivell de seqüència no homòlegs, la funció es conservava, fet que ens porta a suggerir que aquests esdeveniments d’AS són un exemple de convergència funcional. Per últim, ens vam fixar en el procés de la dominància, abastament conegut, que introdueix diferències fenotípiques clares entre individus de la mateixa espècie, sobretot en el cas de malalties. Donat el fet que es coneixia una relació inversa entre paralogia i haploinsuficiència, per una banda, i paralogia i splicing per l’altra, sumat a la capacitat d’introduir variabilitat per part de l’splicing alternatiu, vam endegar aquest estudi amb la idea de descriure la relació entre dominància i splicing. El resultat final ens va mostrar una independència dels dos processos, fet que ens va fer qüestionar la relació entre paralogia i splicing alternatiu. Per la resta de variables estudiades, la caracterització de la dominància va concordar amb els resultats de treballs anteriors. / RESUMEN El estudio de las diferencias fenotípicas entre especies ha sido una de les cuestiones fundamentales de la biología evolutiva y la genética. Muy pronto fue evidente que la regulación de la expresión génica seria clava en el establecimiento de estas diferencias, tesis confirmada con las técnicas masivas de secuenciación actuales. Hoy en día, se conocen una serie de mecanismos que determinan estas diferencias, como son la divergencia de la secuencia proteica, la duplicación génica o la divergencia de la región cis-reguladora. En la última década, el splicing alternativo (AS) ha ido afianzándose como mecanismo post-transcripcional y ha ido tomando protagonismo como fuente de variabilidad de transcritos y isoformas, además de jugar un papel regulador de la expresión génica. Por lo tanto, el AS es un firme candidato a introducir diferencias sustanciales en el proteoma que expliquen la diversidad fenotípica entre organismos. Así pues, este trabajo se marcó como objetivo aclarar hasta qué punto la variabilidad que introducía el AS tenía implicaciones en el fenotipo, cuál era su conservación y si actuaba de manera coordinada o independiente con otros mecanismos. En primer lugar, estudiamos la relación que había entre el AS y las otras fuentes moleculares de diversidad fenotípica y si era posible que el AS pudiera introducir variabilidad con implicaciones fenotípicas por sí sola. A continuación, nos centramos en los mecanismos reguladores de la expresión génica basados en AS, analizando sus propiedades y su conservación entre especies. Finalmente, examinamos la implicación del AS en la dominancia génica. En el primer bloque comparamos el AS con otras fuentes moleculares de diferencias fenotípicas: las divergencias de la secuencia proteica, de la región cis-reguladora del gen y de la expresión génica entre humano y ratón. En un estudio masivo de las propiedades de todos estos fenómenos entre 13.970 ortólogos, observamos que el AS podía introducir diferencias antes que las otras variables pudieran hacerlo. Cuando las identidades de secuencia proteica o de la región cis-reguladora eran demasiado elevadas como para introducir diferencias, el AS ya presentaba patrones bastante diferentes en la concurrencia de AS entre humano y ratón. Además, la relación entre la equivalencia de isoformas con estas divergencias también resultó ser muy leve, lo que nos hizo pensar que el AS puede introducir isoformas específicas que contribuyan a las diferencias entre especies antes que las demás divergencias puedan hacerlo. En el segundo bloque investigamos la conservación y propiedades de los mecanismos reguladores de la expresión génica basados en AS. En primer lugar, confirmamos la independencia entre las divergencias de expresión génica y del AS, lo que nos indica que actúan a diferentes niveles. A continuación, definimos estos mecanismos reguladores dependiendo como el AS alteraba la arquitectura de dominios de las isoformas. La conservación de los mecanismos reguladores basados en AS resultó ser baja en todos los casos. En cuanto a los eventos donde se perdían uno o más dominios en las isoformas alternativas, también fue baja la equivalencia de los eventos de AS. Así, pese a tener efectos a nivel de secuencia no homólogos, la función se conservaba, lo que nos permite sugerir que éste es un escenario de convergencia funcional. Por último, nos fijamos en el proceso de la dominancia, largamente conocido, que introduce diferencias fenotípicas intraespecíficas. Dado que se conocía una relación inversa entre paralogía y haploinsuficiencia, por un lado, y paralogía y AS por la otra, sumado a la capacidad de introducir variabilidad por parte del AS, iniciamos este estudio con la idea de describir la relación entre dominancia y AS. El estudio nos mostró una independencia de los dos procesos, cuestionando así la relación entre paralogía y AS. Para el resto de variables estudiadas, la caracterización de la dominancia concordó con resultados de trabajos anteriores. / The study of phenotypic differences between species, and between individuals, has been one of the great fundamental questions in the fields of evolutionary biology and genetics. Soon, it became clear that the regulation of gene expression would have a key role in establishing these differences in complexity. The advent of mass sequencing techniques did confirm this view. Nowadays, we know a handful of mechanisms that determine these differences between organisms, such as protein sequence divergence, gene duplication and divergence of cis-regulatory region, among others. In the last decade, alternative splicing has been asserting itself as a post-transcriptional mechanism and frequently has taken center stage as a source of variability of transcripts and protein isoforms, and also as a key player in the regulation the gene expression. Therefore, alternative splicing is a strong candidate to introduce substantial differences in the proteome that could explain the phenotypic diversity among organisms. Thus, this work was intended to clarify to what extent the variability introduced the alternative splicing (AS) had implications for the phenotype, which was its conservation and if it acted in a coordinated or independent way relative to other mechanisms. First, we studied the relationship that existed between AS and other sources of molecular and phenotypic diversity and elucidate if AS could introduce phenotypic variability with its own implications. Then we focused on the regulatory mechanisms of gene expression based on AS, analyzing their properties and their conservation between species. Finally, we examined the involvement of AS in the phenomenon of genetic dominance, since it is a known process that determines intraspecific phenotypic differences. The first step was therefore to compare the AS with other sources of molecular phenotypic differences: differences in the protein sequence, the cis-regulatory region of the gene and gene expression between human and mouse. In a massive study of the properties of these phenomena among 13,970 pairs of orthologous, we observed that alternative splicing could introduce differences before other variables could do it. When the identities of protein sequence or cis-regulatory region were too high for introducing differences, AS patterns appeared quite different in the occurrence of splicing between human and mouse. Furthermore, we found that the relationship between the equivalence of isoforms with those differences was very mild, which made us think that AS can introduce specific isoforms that contribute to differences between species before other divergences can do it. Regarding the second section, we investigated the properties and the conservation of the regulatory mechanisms of gene expression based on AS. First, we confirmed the independence between the divergence of gene expression and AS, which indicates that they act at different levels. Then we defined and classified these regulatory mechanisms depending on how the AS altered the domain architecture of the isoforms. The conservation of these effects, the regulatory mechanisms based on AS, was found to be low for all cases. With regard to the events where they lost one or more domains in the alternative isoforms, in addition to the low conservation of the mechanism, it was also low the equivalence of alternative splicing events. So, despite having an non-homologue effect on the level of sequence, the function was preserved, which leads us to suggest that these AS events are an example of functional convergence. Finally, we studied the well known process of dominance which introduces clear phenotypic differences between individuals of the same species, especially in the case of diseases. Given the fact that it is known the inverse relationship between paralogy and haploinsufficiency and, in the other hand, the inverse relationship between paralogy and AS, adding to this the ability of introducing variability by AS, we undertook this study with the idea of describe the relationship between dominance and splicing. The final result showed us that they are two independent processes, which made us question the relationship between paralogy and AS. For the remaining variables, the characterization of the dominance results agreed with previous work.

Master of Science / Department of Computing and Information Sciences / William H. Hsu / Alternative splicing is a mechanism for generating different gene transcripts (called iso- forms) from the same genomic sequence. Finding alternative splicing events experimentally is both expensive and time consuming. Computational methods in general, and EST analy- sis and machine learning algorithms in particular, can be used to complement experimental methods in the process of identifying alternative splicing events. In this thesis, I first iden- tify alternative splicing exons by analyzing EST-genome alignment. Next, I explore the predictive power of a rich set of features that have been experimentally shown to affect al- ternative splicing. I use these features to build support vector machine (SVM) classifiers for distinguishing between alternatively spliced exons and constitutive exons. My results show that simple, linear SVM classifiers built from a rich set of features give results comparable to those of more sophisticated SVM classifiers that use more basic sequence features. Finally, I use feature selection methods to identify computationally the most informative features for the prediction problem considered.

Chapter 1 of this work focuses on alternative splicing of titin as a proof of concept therapy for treating diastolic dysfunction and restrictive filling in a genetic murine model (Ttn^(ΔIAjxn)). The Ttn^(ΔIAjxn) mouse has increased strain on the spring region of titin and acts as a mechanical analogue of the titin-based increase in passive myocardial stiffness found in patients with heart failure and preserved ejection fraction (HFpEF). HFpEF is a complex disease characterized by diastolic dysfunction, exercise intolerance, and concentric hypertrophic remodeling. Approximately half all of heart failure patients suffer from diastolic dysfunction, however, no effective therapy exists for treating this pervasive syndrome. Titin, the largest known protein and molecular spring in the heart, has emerged as a prime candidate for therapeutic targets aimed at restoring compliance to the sarcomere in order to improve diastolic function. Titin has two main cardiac isoforms that are regulated by alternative splicing; the smaller N2B isoform (~3.0 MDa) and the larger more compliant N2BA isoform (~3.3 MDa). Diastolic stiffness of the left ventricle is dependent upon the N2BA:N2B isoform ratio. In the first half of this work, we modified these two primary isoforms by inhibiting the known titin splicing factor Rbm20. We demonstrate that Rbm20 reduction restores diastolic function, improves exercise tolerance and attenuates afterload induced pathologic remodeling of the left ventricle in Ttn^(ΔIAjxn) mice.The work in chapter 2 is focused on studies using the previously published N2B knock out (KO) murine model. The N2B spring element found in cardiac titin's I-band region has been proposed as a sensor and signaling "hot spot" in the sarcomere. This study investigates the role of titin's cardiac specific N2B element as a mechano-sensor for stress and strain induced remodeling of the heart. The N2B KO mouse was subjected to a variety of stressors including transverse aortic constriction (TAC), aortocaval fistula (ACF), chronic swimming, voluntary running and isoproterenol stimulation. Our data revealed that the N2B element is essential in preload stimulated cardiac hypertrophy as well as remodeling due to beta-adrenergic stress. Cardiac hypertrophy is a common maladaptive feature of heart failure patients and the mechanical triggers that determine pathologic growth are not well understood. My work in the N2B KO mouse reveal titin's important role in cardiac remodeling.

published_or_final_version / Biochemistry / Doctoral / Doctor of Philosophy

<p>Homing endonucleases are rare-cutting enzymes that cleave DNA at a site near their own location, preferentially in alleles lacking the homing endonuclease gene (HEG). By cleaving HEG-less alleles the homing endonuclease can mediate the transfer of its own gene to the cleaved site via a process called homing, involving double strand break repair. Via homing, HEGs are efficiently transferred into new genomes when horizontal exchange of DNA occurs between organisms.</p><p>Group I introns are intervening sequences that can catalyse their own excision from the unprocessed transcript without the need of any proteins. They are widespread, occurring both in eukaryotes and prokaryotes and in their viruses. Many group I introns encode a HEG within them that confers mobility also to the intron and mediates the combined transfer of the intron/HEG to intronless alleles via homing.</p><p>Bacteriophage T4 contains three such group I introns and at least 12 freestanding HEGs in its genome. The majority of phages besides T4 do not contain any introns, and freestanding HEGs are also scarcely represented among other phages.</p><p>In the first paper we looked into why group I introns are so rare in phages related to T4 in spite of the fact that they can spread between phages via homing. We have identified the first phage besides T4 that contains all three T-even introns and also shown that homing of at least one of the introns has occurred recently between some of the phages in Nature. We also show that intron homing can be highly efficient between related phages if two phages infect the same bacterium but that there also exists counteracting mechanisms that can restrict the spread of introns between phages. </p><p>In the second paper we have looked at how the presence of introns can affect gene expression in the phage. We find that the efficiency of splicing can be affected by variation of translation of the upstream exon for all three introns in T4. Furthermore, we find that splicing is also compromised upon infection of stationary-phase bacteria. This is the first time that the efficiency of self-splicing of group I introns has been coupled to environmental conditions and the potential effect of this on phage viability is discussed.</p><p>In the third paper we have characterised two novel freestanding homing endonucleases that in some T-even-like phages replace two of the putative HEGs in T4. We also present a new theory on why it is a selective advantage for freestanding, phage homing endonucleases to cleave both HEG-containing and HEG-less genomes.</p>

No description available.

Alternative splicing, the process by which a single gene may code for similar but different proteins, is an important process in biology, linked to development, cellular differentiation, genetic diseases, and more. Genome-wide analysis of alternative splicing patterns and regulation has been recently made possible due to new high throughput techniques for monitoring gene expression and genomic sequencing. This thesis introduces two algorithms for alternative splicing analysis based on large microarray and genomic sequence data. The algorithms, based on generative probabilistic models that capture structure and patterns in the data, are used to study global properties of alternative splicing. In the first part of the thesis, a microarray platform for monitoring alternative splicing is introduced. A spatial noise removal algorithm that removes artifacts and improves data fidelity is presented. The GenASAP algorithm (generative model for alternative splicing array platform) models the non-linear process in which targeted molecules bind to a microarray’s probes and is used to predict patterns of alternative splicing. Two versions of GenASAP have been developed. The first uses variational approximation to infer the relative amounts of the targeted molecules, while the second incorporates a more accurate noise and generative model and utilizes Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) sampling. GenASAP, the first method to provide quantitative predictions of alternative splicing patterns on large scale data sets, is shown to generate useful and precise predictions based on independent RT-PCR validation (a slow but more accurate approach to measuring cellular expression patterns). In the second part of the thesis, the results obtained by GenASAP are analysed to reveal jointly regulated genes. The sequences of the genes are examined for potential regulatory factors binding sites using a new motif finding algorithm designed for this purpose. The motif finding algorithm, called GenBITES (generative model for binding sites) uses a fully Bayesian generative model for sequences, and the MCMC approach used for inference in the model includes moves that can efficiently create or delete motifs, and extend or contract the width of existing motifs. GenBITES has been applied to several synthetic and real data sets, and is shown to be highly competitive at a task for which many algorithms already exist. Although developed to analyze alternative splicing data, GenBITES outperforms most reported results on a benchmark data set based on transcription data.