This work deals with the evaluation of snow cover and snow spatial distribution in experimental Zbytinský and Tetřivči stream basin. Snow mesaurements were focused on snow depth and a snow water equivalent. Interpolation metods and detailed monitoring of rainfall-flow process were applied in the period of the winter half-year 2009 - 2011. The effects of geografic factors on spatial distribution of snow cover in the accumulation period and in the snow melting period were analysed. The analysis of physical geografic factors effect was focused on vegetation, exposure, slope, wind flow and shading. Results confirmed the strong effect of vegetation in the accumulation and snow melting period. Other physical geografic effects on spatial distribution of snow cover were not so significant. The model HEC-HMS was applied to determine the runoff in both stream basins. Simulations result in the winter half-year period reached good agreement between observed and simulated hydrographs. Effects of snow cover contribution to runoff in the snow melting period in wooded Tetřívčí stream basin and also in antropogenic Zbytinský stream basin were proved based on simulations of outflow and snow water equivalent. Key words: snow depth, snow water equivalent, HEC-HMS, Blanice River basin, Zbytinský stream, Tetřívčí stream

The snow galleries along the Iron ore railway line in northern Sweden have had major problems in recent years due to increasingly large snow loads. Despite great efforts reducing the loads by shoveling off the snow, several of the galleries have been damaged. Due to these incidents, the Swedish Transport Administration (TRA) has asked Luleå University of Technology (LTU) to make an evaluation of galleries 4, 9 and 13A in the neighborhood of Vassijauri. TRA has asked for a way to monitor the load on these galleries with a trigger system that gives a warning message when the galleries are exposed to a critical load. Measurement systems have been installed in galleries 9 and 13A during the autumn of 2021 such that the snow load in one mainframe per gallery could be monitored. In this thesis, work has been performed by assessing how much snow load each gallery can handle before it collapses. The restrictions for the project are set based on the drawings that is available from the TRA's information database, BaTMan. A literature study is performed on snow load, how it was changing over the years, both back and forth, how snow load is calculated according to today’s regulations and how the density of the snow affects the intensity of the snow load. The distribution of the snow on the galleries has been performed based on the Eurocodes and National Standards. Models of the galleries in two- dimensional have been created for all frames in all the galleries to find the weakest frame in order to compute the critical load. Some of the frames are not stable when they are analyzed as individual members, therefore the decision was made to also construct 3D models to see how the cobweb effect influenced the galleries' capacity. Before the main frames have reached their full capacity, the secondary construction elements (roof beams) have been damaged and therefore has no major collapse taken place. From the 3D model, it is clear that the secondary construction that lacks capacity. The critical frames are completely different in the 3D model as compared to the 2D model as the stability of the entire gallery changes due to the cobweb effect (the load re-distribution between the neighboring elements, due to both the 3D interaction and the cable link effect) and, as a result, the capacity of the main frames is increased significantly. The study visits to gallery 9 and 13A have been made to gain an understanding on how snow accumulates on and around the galleries and how well the Eurocodes correspond to reality. The pattern shows that the snow drifts from the mountains towards the valley over the galleries, which forms accumulations against the walls. The snow accumulates to a large extent where the galleries geometry changes from high to low angled walls. At locations where the gallery has a wide roof between the grounds, the snow accumulates to a much greater degree compared to the locations with narrow roofs on high-angle walls, see, Figure 73. To be able to improve the model and to obtain more accurate critical loads, it is necessary to review the structures to obtain more precise dimensions, attachments, geometry and exact distances. In the current state, the design plans and descriptions of the galleries are incomplete as modifications and repairs have been made without proper documentation. Hence difficulty arises in the accurate evaluation of their exact capacity. / Snögallerierna längs malmbanan har haft stora problem de senaste åren på grund av stora snölaster. Flera snögallerier har skadats och behövt repareras trots stora insatser av skottning, i samband med snöfall. Trafikverket har efter dessa händelser bett LTU att göra en grundlig utvärdering av gallerierna 4, 9 och 13A. De har efterfrågat ett sätt att följa belastningen av dessa gallerier med ett triggersystem som gör att Trafikverket får ett varningsmeddelande innan gallerierna utsätts för större laster än vad de klarar. Mätsystem har monterats i galleri 9 och 13A under hösten 2021 för att kunna följa snöbelastningen på en huvudram per galleri. I detta examensarbete har ett arbete med att göra en utvärdering av hur mycket snölast varje galleri klarar innan det går sönder. Begränsningarna för projektet är satta utifrån hur mycket information som fanns tillgänglig i Trafikverkets informationsbas BaTMan. En litteraturstudie är gjord på snölast, dess förändring i tid både bakåt och framåt, hur snölasten beräknas enligt regler idag och hur densiteten av snön påverkar för snölastens intensitet. Antaganden om hur mycket snölast varje del av galleriet upptog och dess fördelning gjordes utifrån eurokoder och de nationella standarderna. Modeller av gallerierna i 2D har gjorts för alla ramar i alla gallerierna för att hitta den svagaste ramen och utifrån den ta fram den kritiska lasten. När insikten om att några av ramarna inte är stabila vid enskild analys och att kapaciteten av dessa är extremt låg bestämdes det att modeller i 3D skulle göras för att se om spindelnätseffekten påverkade galleriernas kapacitet. De sekundära konstruktionerna har gett vika innan huvudramarna nått upp till sin fulla kapacitet och därför har hittills har ingen större kollaps skett. I 3D modellen syns det tydligt att det är främst den sekundära konstruktionen som saknar kapacitet. Den kritiska ramen blir en helt annan i 3D modellen än för 2D modellen då stabiliteten för hela galleriet förändras på grund av spindelnätseffekten. Det är tydligt att kapaciteten på ramarna för alla gallerierna ökar på grund av spindelnätseffekten. Studiebesök vid galleri 9 och 13A har genomförts för att få en förståelse för hur snön ackumuleras på och kring gallerierna och hur väl eurokoderna stämmer överens med verkligheten. Det visade sig att snön driver från bergen ner mot dalen över gallerierna vilket bildar driver upp mot väggarna. Snön ansamlas till stor grad där gallerierna ändrar geometriskt form från hög till låg vinkel på väggar. Där galleriet har ett brett tak samlas snön i mycket högre grad än vid smala tak på väggar med hög vinkel, se Figure 73. För att i framtiden kunna göra en bra modell och få fram mer exakta kritiska laster krävs det en noggrann genomgång av alla konstruktioner för att få fram dimensioner, infästningar och exakta avstånd. Den dokumentation som finns på gallerierna idag är ofullständiga, på grund av att reparationer och modifikationer ej har dokumenterats. Detta gör det svårt att göra en noggrann och tillförlitlig utvärdering.

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Academic fiction in its current form—as novels set on university campuses and focused on the lives of faculty—has existed since the mid-twentieth century. The genre explores the purposes and the cultures of universities and the lives of their faculty. Because universities have traditionally been insular communities that interact little with the outside world, the novels contain few non-academic characters. However, one non-academic group does appear consistently throughout the genre—the academic wives. These characters host parties, care for their husbands and children, and remain largely separate from the university structure. Although they appear in nearly all academic fiction, they have escaped notice by critics because they are secondary characters who exist largely in the background. However, a comparison of academic wives and their roles in C. P. Snow's The Masters (published 1951; set 1937), Kingsley Amis's Lucky Jim (published 1954; set in the early 1950s), and Malcolm Bradbury's The History Man (published 1975; set 1972) shows that these characters contribute significantly to the development of universities' cultures. Their roles both influence and respond to changes within the university structure. The academics' anxiety over the wives' potential influence on university affairs in these novels, and these women’s responses to this anxiety, enable the genre to explore the division between academics and non-academics within the university culture.

The understanding of the dynamics of the climatic variables is critical to model and predict climatic and environmental changes. Traditional measures collected by the meteorological stations network are dispersedly located throughout the territory in the northern high latitudes and errors associated to these variations can be considerable. Our goal is to evaluate the contribution of the remote sensing by passive microwaves compared to the ground measurements for better characterizing the variations in the surface temperature during the winter. In the presence of snow, extraction of the surface parameters by microwave measurements is a complex and ill-conditioned problem. We evaluated a semi-empirical relation based on a theoretical analysis to estimate the surface temperatures with the measured brightness temperatures at 19 and 37 GHz (vertical polarization). Simulations of emissivity made with the Helsinki Technology University (HUT) model, the knowledge of the land cover, and the forest biomass enable us to define this relationship.The results of the comparison between the calculated surface temperatures and the air temperatures for the entire Canada (137 stations) and for two winters, 1992-93 and 2002-03 (16359 measurements) show a significant correlation with an estimation error ranging between 4 and 7[degrees Celsius] according to the regions considered. These results are discussed according to region and type of land cover (grassland, forest, tundra).

Résumé : Cette recherche présente l'analyse spatio-temporelle de l'évolution conjointe de l'augmentation de la présence arbustive et de la dynamique de la fonte de la neige au Nunavik, Québec, Canada. Cette zone est caractérisée par la complexité de l'interaction de multiples changements simultanés de la température, de la couverture de la neige ainsi que de la pousse végétative. La première partie de ce travail consiste à faire l'analyse de l’évolution temporelle de ces multiples changements. Cette analyse a nécessité la mise en place d’une importante base de données climatiques, satellitaires et de couverture de sol à plusieurs échelles, sur une période allant jusqu'à 60 ans, soit de 1950-2012. La deuxième partie du travail consiste à faire l'analyse spatiale à haute résolution de l’influence de la fraction du couvert arbustif sur la fonte de la neige. L'analyse et l'interprétation des résultats obtenus dans la première partie montrent clairement un changement climatique significatif sur la région étudiée, découpée en 3 bandes de latitude correspondant à la toundra, la taïga ouverte et à la taïga forestière, respectivement du Nord au Sud. Ce changement de climat correspond à un réchauffement marqué, entre 0.75°C et 1.57°C par décade entre les zones 1 (toundra) et 3 (taïga forestière) respectivement. On peut noter que la hauteur de neige maximale annuelle a diminué dans les trois zones alors que les précipitations hivernales ont augmenté en zone 1 et 3 sur les 45 dernières années. Les résultats montrent une nette augmentation de la végétation arbustive dans les zones 2 et 3 (LAI plus élevé de 100% dans la zone 3 par rapport à la zone 1). L'impact de la végétation a été analysé à partir de la durée de fonte relative entre le début de la fonte et la disparition de la neige. Il apparait clairement que la végétation active la fonte précocement, allongeant ainsi significativement la durée de fonte (+600%). Cependant, l'impact de la végétation ne retarde pas la date de fin du couvert nival qui est de plus en plus précoce pour les zones 2 et 3. L'analyse spatiale à haute résolution montre que la présence arbustive entraine une date de fin de neige plus précoce par rapport au sol nu. Cette étude démontre clairement que la croissance de la végétation qui résulte du réchauffement climatique impacte la dynamique du couvert nival, aussi affectée par ce réchauffement. Une étude approfondie des processus en causes avec des mesures in situ appuyées par leur modélisation permettrait de mieux comprendre ces phénomènes. // Abstract : This study presents a spatial-temporal analysis of the joint evolution of the increase of shrubiness and the dynamics of snowmelt in Nunavik, Quebec, Canada. This zone is characterized by the complexity of the interaction of multiple changes of temperature, snow cover and vegetation growth. The first part of this study analyzes the temporal evolution of these changes. The analysis required the use of a large database on climate, satellite data and ground cover at multiple scales over a period of up to 60 years, from 1950 to 2012. The second part of the study consists of a spatial high-resolution analysis of the influence of the fraction of shrub cover on snowmelt. The analysis and interpretation of the results clearly show a significant climate change over the study area, divided into three latitudinal transects corresponding to tundra, open taiga and forested taiga. A significant warming of 0.75 ° C and 1.57 ° C per decade was experienced between zones 1 (tundra) and 3 (forested taiga) respectively. The maximum annual snow depth on the ground decreased over the 3 zones studied while winter precipitations increased in zones 1 and 3 over the last 45 years. The results show a significant increase in shrub vegetation in zones 2 and 3. The impact of the vegetation on snow was analyzed with melt duration (from melt onset to complete melt). It appears clearly that the vegetation triggers the melting process earlier and significantly extends the melt duration (+600%). However, the impact of vegetation does not delay the date of the snow cover disappearance. The high-resolution spatial analysis showed that shrubs cause an earlier snow cover disappearance date than bare soil. This study clearly demonstrates that vegetation growth resulting from global warming impacts the snow cover dynamics, which are also affected by global warming. A thorough study of the processes with in-situ measurements supported by models would help gaining a better comprehension of these phenomena.

Résumé : Le bilan d’énergie de la Terre est largement influencé par la variation de l’albédo de surface (fraction de l'énergie solaire réfléchie par une surface). Ces variations sont modifiées par la présence, l’épaisseur et les propriétés physiques de la neige. Le réchauffement climatique observé a un impact significatif sur l'évolution du couvert nival, ce qui influence grandement l'albédo de surface, et en retour modifie le climat. Malgré l’importance de l’albédo de surface, plusieurs modèles calculent l’albédo de manière empirique, ce qui peut entraîner des biais significatifs entre les simulations et les observations selon les surfaces étudiées. Le schéma de surface canadien, Canadian Land Surface Scheme, CLASS (utilisé au Canada dans les modèles climatiques Global Climate Model et Modèle Régional Canadien du Climat), modélise l’évolution spatiale et temporelle des propriétés de la neige, dont l'albédo. L’albédo de CLASS est calculé selon la hauteur et l’âge (métamorphisme) de la neige au sol, et selon l’accumulation de la neige sur la canopée. Les objectifs de ce travail sont d’analyser le comportement de l’albédo (simulé et mesuré) et d’améliorer le paramétrage de l’albédo de surface pendant l’hiver sur des régions à l’est du Canada. Plus précisément, le comportement de l’albédo a été étudié par l’analyse de la sensibilité de CLASS 3.6 aux paramètres prescrits (paramètres qui sont utilisés dans les calculs du modèle dont les valeurs sont fixes et définies empiriquement). En plus de l’analyse des variations temporelles de l’albédo en fonction des conditions météorologiques pour les terrains de végétation basse (noté "gazon") et de conifères. Aussi, l’amélioration du paramétrage a été tentée en optimisant (pour le gazon et les conifères) ou en modifiant (pour le gazon) les calculs considérant les paramètres prescrits dont l’albédo de CLASS est sensible. En premier lieu, nous avons montré que la sensibilité de l’albédo de CLASS en terrain de gazon dépend grandement du seuil du taux de précipitation nécessaire pour que l’albédo soit actualisé (à sa valeur maximale) dans le modèle. Faire varier ce seuil entraîne que les simulations quotidiennes d’albédo de surface enneigées vont s’étaler en majorité entre 0.62 à 0.8 (supérieur à l’étalement normalement simulé). Le modèle est aussi sensible à la valeur d’actualisation de l’albédo dont la variation entraîne que l’albédo enneigé quotidien peut s’étaler de jusqu’à 0.48 à 0.9. En milieu forestier (conifères), le modèle est peu sensible aux paramètres prescrits étudiés. La comparaison entre les albédos simulés et les mesures au sol montrent une sous-estimation du modèle de -0.032 (4.3 %) à SIRENE (gazon au sud du Québec), de -0.027 (3.4 %) à Goose-Bay (gazon en site arctique) et de -0.075 (27.1 %) à la Baie-James (forêt boréale). Lorsque comparée avec les données MODIS (MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) la sous-estimation du modèle à la Baie-James est de -0.011 (5.2 %). On montre que la valeur de l'albédo mesurée lors des précipitations de neige à Goose Bay est en moyenne supérieure à la valeur d'actualisation de l'albédo dans le modèle (0.896 par rapport 0.84), ce qui peut expliquer la sous-estimation. En forêt, un des problèmes provient de la faible valeur de l'albédo de la végétation enneigée (ajout de 0.17 dans le visible), tandis que l’albédo de surface mesuré peut être augmenté de 0.37 (par rapport à la végétation sans neige). Aussi, l’albédo de la neige sur la canopée ne diminue pas avec le temps contrairement à ce qui est observé. En second lieu, nous avons tenté d’améliorer le paramétrage, en optimisant des paramètres prescrits (aucune amélioration significative n’est obtenue) et en modifiant la valeur d'actualisation de l’albédo de la neige en zone de gazon. Cette valeur, normalement fixe, a été rendue variable selon la température et le taux de précipitations. Les résultats démontrent que les modifications n’apportent pas d'améliorations significatives de la RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) entre les simulations et les mesures d’albédo. Les modifications sont toutefois pertinentes pour ajouter de la variabilité aux fortes valeurs d’albédo simulées ainsi que pour améliorer la compréhension du comportement des simulations d’albédo. Aussi, la méthodologie peut être reproduite pour d’autres études qui veulent étudier la représentativité et améliorer les simulations d’un modèle. / Abstract : The surface energy balance of northern regions is closely linked to surface albedo (fraction of solar radiation reflected by a surface) variations. These variations are strongly influenced by the presence, depth and physical properties of the snowpack. Climate change affects significantly snow cover evolution, and decreases surface albedo and snow albedo with positive feedback to climate. Despite the importance of the albedo, many models empirically compute it, which can induce significant biases with albedo observations depending on studied surfaces. The Canadian Land Surface Scheme, CLASS (used in Canada into the Canadian Regional Climate Model, and the Global Climate Model), simulates the spatial and temporal evolution of snow state variables including the albedo. The albedo is computed according to the depth of snow on the ground as well as the accumulation of snow in trees. The albedo seasonal evolution for snow on ground is estimated in CLASS from an empirical aging expression with time and temperature and a “refresh” based on a threshold of snowfall depth. The seasonal evolution of snow on canopy is estimated from an interception expression with trees type and snowfall density and an empirical expression for unloading rate with time. The objectives of this project are to analyse albedo behavior (simulated and measured) and to improve CLASS simulations in winter for Eastern Canada. To do so, sensitivity test were performed on prescribed parameters (parameters that are used in CLASS computation, their values are fixed, and determined empirically). Also, albedo evolution with time and meteorological conditions were analysed for grass and coniferous terrain. Finally, we tried to improve simulations by optimizing sensitive prescribed parameters for grass and coniferous terrain, and by modifying the refresh albedo value for grass terrain. First, we analysed albedo evolution and modelling biases. Grass terrain showed strong sensitivity to the precipitation rate threshold (for the albedo to refresh to its maximum value), and to the value of the albedo refresh. Both are affected by input data of precipitation rate and phase. The modification of precipitation threshold rate generates daily surface albedo to vary mainly (75 % of data in winter) between 0.62 and 0.8, which is a greater fluctuation than for a normal simulation over winter. The modification of the albedo refresh value generates surface albedo to vary mainly (75 %) between 0.66 and 0.79, but with extreme values, 25 % of data, from 0.48 to 0.9. Coniferous areas showed small sensitivity to studied prescribed parameters. Also, comparisons were made between simulated and measured mean albedo during winter. CLASS underestimates the albedo by -0.032 (4.3 %) at SIRENE (grass in Southern Quebec), by -0.027 (3.4 %) at Goose Bay (grass in arctic site) and by -0.075 (27.1 %) at James Bay (boreal forest) (or -0.011 (5.2 %) compared to MODIS (MODerate resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer) data). A modelling issue in grass terrain is the small and steady maximum albedo value (0.84) compared to measured data in arctic condition (0.896 with variation of an order of 0.09 at Goose Bay, or 0.826 at SIRENE with warmer temperatures). In forested areas, a modelling issue is the small albedo increase (+0.17 in the visible range, +0.04 in NIR) for the part of the vegetation that is covered by snow (total surface albedo gets to a maximum of 0.22) compared to events of high surface albedo (0.4). Another bias comes from the albedo value of the snow trapped on canopy which does not decrease with time in opposition to observed surface albedo which is lower at the end of winter and which suggests snow metamorphism occurred. Secondly, we tried to improve simulations by optimizing prescribed parameters and by modifying the albedo’s maximum value computation. Optimisations were made on sensitive prescribed parameters or on those that seemed unsuited. No significant RMSE (Root Mean Square Error) improvements were obtained from optimisations in both grass and coniferous area. Improvements of albedo simulations were tried by adjusting the maximum value (normally fixed) with temperature and precipitation rate, in grass terrain. Results show that these modifications did not significantly improved simulations’ RMSE. Nevertheless, the latter modification improved the correlation between simulated and measured albedo. These statistics were made with the whole dataset which can reduce the impact of modifications (they were mainly affecting albedo during a precipitation event), but it allows to overview the new model performance. Modifications also added variability to maximum values (closer to observed albedo) and they increased our knowledge on surface albedo behavior (simulated and measured). The methodology is also replicable for other studies that would aim to analyse and improve simulations of a surface model.

This thesis describes medical aspects of the expeditions of the Heroic Age of Antarctic exploration (1895-1922). It is divided into three sections. Section 1 describes the drugs and medical equipment taken to the Antarctic by these expeditions. There is an introductory discussion followed by papers on ophthalmic drugs, injections, inhalations and suppositories, oral drugs and topical preparations. Sledging medical cases are considered separately. Brandy was often used as a medicine and the medical uses of alcohol are described. Some expeditions took what were described as “medical comforts”. This term was sometimes used as a euphemism for alcoholic beverages but, in fact, encompassed a wide range of foods for invalids. Burroughs Wellcome and Co. supplied many of the expeditions with drugs and their medical chests. They used the expedition link in their advertising and the relationship between the expeditions and drug companies is described. Section 2 describes some of the medical problems encountered. The most serious problems were scurvy and a condition often called “polar anaemia”, which seems to be the same as a condition known at the time as “ship beriberi” and what is now described as “wet beriberi”. The controversy as to whether Captain Scott and his colleagues died of scurvy is also discussed. Other problems included frostbite and snow blindness. At least 11 general anaesthetics were given, including two for amputation of frostbitten toes. Psychological problems were common and there was some serious psychiatric illness including alcohol abuse. Section 3 describes the doctors and some of the research that they carried out. The most common research done by doctors was bacteriological. Most doctors collected biological data on the explorers including weights and haemoglobin measurements. This was largely for health monitoring but one doctor pursued physiological research. Three doctors and a medical student studied geology.

Research in animal personality has been increasing over the last decade, as scientists realise its importance to a variety of health outcomes. In particular, personality has been shown to have an effect on immune function, stress, infant survival, overall well-being, morbidity, and mortality. Because of this, personality can play an important role in captive management, especially as stress is often a problem for captive animals. Research has already shown that personality affects captive breeding efforts, enclosure grouping, and stress regulation in some species. Only a few studies have focused on felids, but these have shown that there are possible applications for personality in that taxon. Because most felids are endangered, and because many of them face special challenges in captivity due to their size and biology, this work aimed to increase knowledge on felids, using personality as a framework, with implications for captive management as a target. Focusing on five species, I assessed the personality of domestic cats, Scottish wildcats, clouded and snow leopards, and African lions, and the well-being of the four latter species. With the exception of the domestic cat, there has been little to no personality work in these species, and none on well-being. I then compared the data within and among these species. I found three main personality factors among the species, including dimensions I labelled Neuroticism, Dominance, and Impulsiveness, with some differences, including an Agreeableness factor in some species, and elements of Openness. As in other species, well-being was negatively related to Neuroticism in most of the study species. Taking into consideration each species’ biology, natural history, and genetics, I discuss the implications and importance of using these species’ personality and well-being assessments in both captive management and conservation efforts. The results indicate that, like in humans, a targeted, individual approach to care is the best use of personality for captive animals.