<p>Gregory (2003) demonstrated that for the past thirty-five years small steps of progress have been made towards women's equality. However, he stated that sex discrimination is still blatant, subtle and covert and it continues to plague working women. He continued to argue that nearly all the population of women in the U.S. encounter obstacles in job advancement, whether the obstacles are glass or cement ceilings or ordinary brick walls. (p.5). The researcher will attempt to elaborate on disparate treatment women have endured for generations. With the current pay scale between women and men, women receive 23 cents less than their male colleagues out of every dollar earned. Because this system exist, it impedes a woman's holistic growth and functionality. For example, there are some women who are trapped in abusive relationships but cannot leave because they lack adequate financial resources. </p><p> Gregory (2003) pointed out that employer retaliation comes in various forms, although employers tend to favor discharge over other options. (p.162). He also stated that other forms of retaliation employers use to punish their employees for having engaged in protected activities include denials of promotion and demotions (p.163). The fear of retaliation prevents a woman from reporting the perpetrator. In addition, some of the political realm is working night and day against the improvement and progress of the women's population. With the above argument made about the disparate treatments towards women, the researcher will apply the qualitative method in this thesis to breakdown problems women face. Plus, the researcher makes suggestions how the nation can be involved in resolving and eliminating these issues, individually and collectively, to moving women's rights and progress forward and permanently. </p>

<p> This thesis studies the potency of place in mobilizing social categories, and its implications for both social categories and places. I use the theory of distanciation to study associations between caste identity and place. I conducted an ethnographic study of a caste-based digital group, the <i>Cyber Thiyyars of Malabar,</i> to understand the connections and disconnections between the Thiyya caste and Malabar from the perspectives of different sets of actors involved in the identification of caste, namely the nation-state and members of this caste-based network. The nation-state knows the Thiyya caste in a manner that is disconnected from Malabar, while the <i>Cyber Thiyyars of Malabar</i> seek to re-emphasize the identification of this caste through the region. Participant observation and in-depth interviews indicate that through references to Malabar, the group seeks to establish a Thiyya caste identity that is distinct from the Ezhavas, a caste group within which the nation-state subsumes them. </p><p> I demonstrate that references to Malabar serve to counter the stigma that the <i>Cyber Thiyyars of Malabar</i> experience when the spatially abstract categorization of the Thiyyas interacts with notions of caste inferiority/superiority. Further, it serves as a mobilizational tool through which they hope to negotiate with the nation-state for greater access to affirmative action. I also demonstrate that caste identification continues to be relevant to the production of place. Place-based identification of the Thiyyas influences the manner in which the group envisions the physical boundaries of Malabar and how other social groups can belong to this region. Based on this analysis, I argue that framework of distanciation should incorporate not only the experience of place and social relations, but also how they are known and represented. </p><p> This dissertation establishes that even though social categories such as caste and place are not conventionally understood to be connected to each other, it is important to study the associations between them. Although the new media and globalization may prompt to us to think that place does not matter anymore, I establish that this caste group uses the language of place to organize and mobilize itself on a stronger basis in precisely this context. </p>

<p>Historically, the majority of immigrants to the United States came from European countries. The 1965 Immigration Reform Act (IRA) fundamentally changed the configuration of immigrants to the United States. The largest immigrant communities now consist of Latin Americans, Asians, and Africans. Another important development in immigrant communities in the past few decades has been the growth of a disproportionately large upper class in non-Hispanic immigrant communities. In this study, I will investigate the determinants of upper class status with a focus on non-Hispanic immigrants in the United States. </p><p> I have used a theoretical framework consisting of a wide spectrum of social theories. The theoretical framework encompasses Demographic and Structural Factors, Assimilation Theory, Weberian Theory, Elite Theories, and Marxian Theory. From this wide spectrum of theories, I have developed a set of fifteen exogenous variables including key socio-demographic variables, metropolitan area, region, the number of hours worked, immigration from an English speaking country, citizenship status, the length of stay in the United States, occupational status, occupational prestige, educational attainment, private schooling, and employment status. Consequently, I have analyzed the influence of these variables on upper class status attainment among non-Hispanic immigrants in the United States. </p><p> The current study has utilized secondary data analysis from the 2010 American Community Survey (ACS). Bivariate and multivariate regression analyses were used to examine the relationship among study variables. More specifically, by conducting block analysis, the result of the regression analysis spelled out the degree of influence of each theoretical perspective on the dependent variable, upper class status attainment. </p><p> The results of this study have revealed that Structural and Demographic factors make up the largest share of influence on upper class status attainment among non-Hispanic immigrants in the United States. The most influential variables emerged as &ldquo;hours worked&rdquo; (<b>&beta; = 0.211</b>) from the Demographic and Structural Factors block, &ldquo;educational attainment&rdquo; (<b>&beta; = 0.174</b>) from elite theory, and &ldquo;Marital Status&rdquo; (<b>&beta; = 0.119</b>) from the Demographic and Structural Factors block respectively. </p>

<p> The importance of caring relationships between youth and their teachers, mentors, and tutors, for fostering positive academic and socioemotional outcomes is widely recognized in the literature (e.g. Hamre &amp; Pianta, 2005; Hao &amp; Pong, 2008; Wentzel, 2003). However, limited research explores the nature and impact of caring relationships between refugees and their educators. Iraqi refugees make up a growing population in the United States (U.S. Citizenship and Immigration Services, 2011). Understanding this growing population and identifying interventions that benefit youths' integration into an unfamiliar world is increasingly important. </p><p> This research expanded understanding of young Iraqi refugees' notions of caring and the implications of those caring relationships for refugee populations. This study was grounded in a theoretical framework, which integrated caring theory (Noddings, 2001), and social capital theory (Bourdieu, 1983; Putnam, 2000; Stanton-Salazar &amp; Dornbusch, 1995). Data were collected utilizing a multi-method approach. First, qualitative in-depth interviews with Iraqi refugees (ages 14-20) were conducted to examine their caring relationships with educators and the resulting academic and socioemotional benefits. A secondary analysis of a large database from the Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study (CILS) (Portes &amp; Rumbaut, 2012) was also conducted, including people whose families came to the United States for political reasons. This research explored caring teacher-student relationships and their impact on students' academic outcomes and self-esteem. </p><p> Most of the interview respondents revealed that they had caring educators. Respondents perceived these educators as those who cared for them academically and personally. Students felt particularly cared for by educators who recognized their specific needs as refugees; these care-providers were often English as a Second Language (ESOL) teachers. While not all educators were perceived as caring, those who were caring provided resources for youths. Respondents benefited from caring relationships, as they learned about academic and professional programs, accessed assistance with college admittance, and received emotional support. The quantitative portion revealed that students who perceived their teachers to be good, fair, and interested, all indicators of caring, had higher self-esteem and Grade Points Averages (GPAs). Overall, this research fills an important gap in the literature and provides important implications for theory and practice.</p>

<p> Throughout the nation, grocery retailers are reentering underserved communities amidst growing public awareness of food deserts and the rise of federal, state, and local programs incentivizing urban grocery stores. And yet, even with expanding research on food deserts and their public health impacts, there is still a lack of consensus on whether grocery stores truly offer the best solution. Furthermore, scholars and policymakers alike have limited understandings of the broader neighborhood implications of grocery stores newly introduced into underserved urban communities.</p><p> This dissertation analyzes how local organizations and agencies pursue grocery development in order to understand the conditions for success implementation. To do this, I examine the historical drivers, planning processes, and outcomes of two extreme cases of urban grocery development: a Fresh and Easy Neighborhood Market (a chain value store) in San Francisco's Bayview Hunters Point and the Mandela Foods Cooperative (a worker-owned cooperative) in Oakland's West Oakland districts. </p><p> Through a comparative institutional analysis, I find that both Fresh and Easy and Mandela Foods reflect distinctive neighborhood revitalization legacies, critical moments of institutional capacity building, localized versions of national policy narratives, and the role of charismatic leaders in grocery store implementation. While national narratives shape the rhetoric of urban grocery development, ultimately local context dictates how food access issues are defined, who addresses them, and how. These findings suggest that federal grocery incentive programs should: 1) maintain a broad framework that enables local communities to define food access problems and their solutions on a case-by-case basis, 2) encourage diverse solutions not limited to grocery stores and supermarkets, and 3) emphasize community reinvestment goals.</p>

<p> The demands and challenges of early parenthood place adolescent mothers at high risk for developing adjustment difficulties. The current longitudinal study examined the types of relationships that Latina adolescent mothers have with their partners, based on the young mother's level of acculturation and enculturation. The study also examined positive (e.g., partner support, relationship satisfaction) and negative (e.g., relationship strain) aspects of romantic relationships that impact both relationship continuity and the adolescent mothers' psychological adjustment. One hundred and twenty five Latina adolescent mothers (M age=19.49 years; SD=1.34; of primarily Puerto Rican origin) who reported having a partner and their young children participated in this study at T1; one hundred and eight of these mothers returned for a second assessment 6 months later (T2). The majority of participants resided with their partners (70.4%) and approximately 42% of the young mothers were in relatively long-lasting (3 or more years) relationships with their partners. Around 19% of mothers were married, and marriage and co-residence with partner related to higher perceived instrumental support. Mothers' cultural orientation was related to characteristics of these relationships. Less acculturated mothers and mothers who were highly enculturated were more likely to be married and living with partners. The partners of more enculturated mothers were also more likely to be the child's biological father. Roughly 78% of participants who had a partner at T1 and returned for T2 reported the same partner at T2. Although a few demographic and relationship characteristics were related to continuity (e.g., co-residence and relationship with child's father, having Latino partners, and longer relationships), relationship satisfaction was the only unique predictor of continuity. In regard to associations with mother's psychological distress, non-tangible support, satisfaction, and strain at T1 related to distress at T2. However, strain was the only unique predictor of distress; satisfaction had a marginal effect. Importantly, the association between strain and distress was moderated by satisfaction, such that strain predicted more distress at low and medium levels of satisfaction, but not at higher levels of satisfaction. Results are discussed in light of Latino cultural values, developmental issues, and implications for intervention. </p>

<p> Theory suggests and research provides evidence that stigma can have a negative impact on the self-concept for individuals with severe and persistent mental illness. Labeling theory and modified labeling theory suggest that individuals who are labeled with a socially undesirable status (e.g. mental illness) may develop negative cognitions, self-perceptions and emotions as a result of the associated stigma. However, some evidence suggests that the harmful effects of stigma on self-concept may not have as strong or an enduring of an impact as labeling theories might predict. In this dissertation, I utilize longitudinal survey data of 221 individuals with mental illness to consider the role of empowerment and defensive responses that individuals use to resist the potentially negative effects of stigma. Specifically, I examine defensive strategies, such as secrecy and social withdrawal, and empowerment-oriented responses to stigma, including community activism and righteous anger, as factors that may moderate the effect of stigma on self-concept. I found limited support of the negative effect that perceived stigma has on self-concept. While I did find some evidence that stigma is negatively associated with both self-esteem and mastery, these associations were only of modest strength. There was no finding suggesting that the stigma response items moderate the relationship between stigma and self-concept, but mediating relationships are present. Further research is needed in order to better understand how stigma resistance strategies influence the varying effects of the stigma of mental illness on self-concept.</p>

<p> Sub-Saharan Africa has the lowest rates of electrification and some of the worst education statistics worldwide. In the absence of strong infrastructure for a reliable grid system and quality universal primary schooling, the poor suffer significantly. Though substantial research has been done on both issues separately, the relationship between the two has yet to be explored. This thesis uses social justice theories to introduce the connections between energy poverty and an individual&rsquo;s education capabilities through a case study in Zambia. Case study research was carried out in the urban low-resource settlements of Lusaka, Zambia over a period of two months with Lifeline Energy, using methods of participant observation.</p><p> Drawing on trends discovered in survey responses, interviews and feedback from a distribution of renewable technologies, this study demonstrates that a lack of modern forms of energy detracts from education. By synthesizing the data with Martha Nussbaum's capabilities approach and Sendhil Mullainathan and Eldar Shafir&rsquo;s scarcity theory, the research reveals that energy poverty hinders an individual&rsquo;s ability to study and gain a quality education and diminishes their available cognitive capacity to learn by tunneling attention to the resource deficit. Furthermore, it supports the claim that energy poverty is not gender neutral. The research concludes that the scarcity caused by energy poverty can be lessened by the investment in and use of small-scale renewable technologies which alleviates some of the daily stress and grind of poverty. This thesis lays the groundwork to recognize energy poverty as an injustice.</p><p> <b>Keywords: Energy Poverty, Education, Gender, Sub-Saharan Africa, Scarcity, Capabilities Approach.</b></p>

This thesis examines the ways in which women assess and seek resources in their urban contexts. I argue that the struggles of daily life in local communities and institutional groups can produce ideological spaces into which new practices, arising from increased consciousness of issues, can be developed. My aim has been to uncover women's experiences in a way that not only interprets meanings from their practices, but also encourages such practices to be seen as valid renderings of women's understandings. I examine women's initiatives through the analysis of varying contexts. While I acknowledge the historical importance of the domestic situation as a threshold for much historic activism, women's proactivity requires a broader situational analysis. I therefore present cases of proactivity within the domestic, public and business spheres, within the two cities of Waitakere and North Shore of Auckland, New Zealand. Through the search for new progressive social identities, women's activities at the inter-personal level are a prime source of social change. It is through the recursive relationship between women as agents and the social structure, that changing interpretations of social expectations are produced, allowing for creative activism. While women's initiatives may aim to transform particular social environments, they become part of the incremental process of change that alters the experience and structure of women's lives. The thesis has four parts. The first outlines the scope, objectives and theoretical framework, while the second conceptualises women's agency and its positioning within social gendered structures. Part Three presents the investigative processes linking the theoretical framework and the empirical analysis. Part Four submits the thematic interpretations of the thesis, concluding that women can be agents of social change in a diversity of ways. I acknowledge my feminist stance, one with layerings of objectives and motivations. I view women's circumstances as resulting from the interweaving of structural forces and personal capacities. The resulting awareness of women's experiences can challenge the values and concepts of masculine discourses. This is viewed through the concept of multiplicity. On a political level this means creating a resistance to hierarchies and a commitment to a plurality of voice, style and structure. / Subscription resource available via Digital Dissertations only.

This thesis examines how, in a rural New Zealand ‘area school’, successful democratic parental and community voice was able to bring about the creation of an education alternative. While the parental initiative was in line with the rhetoric of Tomorrow' s Schools (1988) the contention in this thesis is that initiatives such as this were not intended by the legislation. Despite the fact that the initiative was stimulated by and explicitly invoked the rhetoric, the spirit of the legislation was philosophically opposed to this particular kind of innovation. The ‘Kiwi’ initiative emerged in 1993, five years after the legislation. The initiative centred around a request for an alternative education programme to be set up within ‘Takiwa School’. This alternative was modelled on Playcentre, a New Zealand Early Childhood Education model, which encompasses aspects of progressivism. Kiwi parents and Takiwa School personnel achieved a ‘school within the school’ for a segment of Takiwa community. Parents became fully involved in all aspects of their children's curriculum, from planning, through to delivery and assessment. This thesis examines the politics of the change process within Takiwa School. Three questions are central to this case study examination of change. These are: What were the parents asking for? How were the parents able to achieve what they were asking for? and What were the effects of the process on what it was that the initiative ultimately became? These three questions are examined in a sociological manner, from a critical realist approach. A range of theoretical tools are utilised; the central theoretical windows are a combination of Exit, Voice and Loyalty-which is provided by Hirschman (1970)-and the theories which are encompassed in the New Institutionalist approach. The central argument of the thesis is that it was a particular combination of conditions and motivations which made the Kiwi innovation possible. The possible replicability of the initiative is discussed. A key concern of the thesis as a whole is whether the set of circumstances in which the innovation transpired was unique. / Subscription resource available via Digital Dissertations only.