Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Drinking and driving is increasingly becoming a detrimental behavior, especially amongst college-aged students in the U.S. and other countries. Additionally, research shows that college-age students in the U.S. are more likely to drink and drive, than college-age students in Germany. Fishbein and Ajzen’s Theory of Reasoned Action asserts that subjective norms and attitudes signify behavioral intentions. In order to test the TRA and understand the drinking and driving differences and similarities in the U.S. and Germany, focus groups of German and American college-age students were conducted to discuss subjective norms and attitudes surrounding drinking and driving behaviors, followed up by an electronic pilot study survey regarding same. The data collected illustrated that college-age drinking and driving is occurs more frequently in the U.S., and that American and German students differ in their attitudes and subjective norms surrounding drinking and driving. Future research would benefit the continued use and circulation of the electronic surveys for larger cross-cultural samples of college-age students to more effectively and quantitatively assess actual drinking and driving behaviors as it relates to subjective norms and attitudes, as suggested in the TRA.

Att sociala normer omedvetet inbäddas i interaktionsdesign har kommit att bli ett problem i takt med den ökade digitaliseringen. Tidigare forskning visar på att interaktionsdesign inte är en neutral plattform utan kan bidra till exkludering genom att förstärka uppfattningen om vem produkten riktar sig mot inom ramarna för de sociala normer som existerar i samhället. Kunskapsgapet ligger således i bristen på teoretiska och metodologiska tillvägagångssätt som hjälper designers att ifrågasätta normativa designkonventioner och navigera designrymden för alternativa metoder och praktiker. Denna kvalitativa studie med socialundersökning som forskningsstrategi grundar sig i att besvara forskningsfrågan: Vilka tillvägagångssätt använder UX-designers för att designa normkritiskt inom interaktionsdesign? I denna studie syftar tillvägagångssätt på olika metoder och principer som UX-designers använder i sitt normkritiska arbete. Genom semistrukturerade intervjuer intervjuades tio UX-designers med frågor som utgick från fyra perspektiv: kulturella representationer, interaktivitet, teknik och användningssammanhang. Data analyserades utifrån en tematisk analys och ställdes sedan i relation till dessa fyra perspektiv med kunskap från tidigare studier för att kunna besvara forskningsfrågan. Studien visade på att det fanns flera tillvägagångssätt till att designa normkritiskt, nämligen genom användarcentrerad design, tillgänglighetsgranskning, samt ifrågasättande av normativa designval. Vidare identifierades ett antal ekonomiska, strukturella och tekniska barriärer som motverkar UX-designers tillvägagångssätt för normkritisk interaktionsdesign. / In line with increased digitalisation, the fact that social norms subconsciously are embedded in interaction design has become a topic of discussion. Previous research shows that digitally designed platforms aren't as neutral as we once thought but excludes users by reinforcing the perception of a target audience within the framework of societal norms. The knowledge gap lies in the lack of theoretical and methodological approaches to assist designers in questioning normative design conventions and help navigate the design sphere for alternative methods and practices. By collecting data from social surveys, this qualitative study aims to understand and answer the research question: What approaches do UX designers use to design norm-critically within interaction design? In this study, approaches refers to methods and principles that UX designers use in their norm-critical design work. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with ten participants with questions based on four norm-critical perspectives: cultural representation, interactivity, technology, and context of use. Later, the data was analysed by the use of thematic analysis and examined in relation to these four perspectives with data collected from previous studies to be able to answer the research question. The study showed that UX designers have several approaches to working norm-critical, namely through user-centered design, accessibility reviews, and questioning normative design practices. However, a number of financial, structural, and technical barriers have been identified that counteracts UX designers approaches to norm-critical interaction design.

Dans le contexte actuel de la polarisation sur les réseaux sociaux, ce mémoire de maîtrise porte sur la négociation à plusieurs niveaux des normes sociales relatives au discours haineux, sur le forum de Reddit. La recherche s'articule autour de la régulation du contenu par les modérateurs et les utilisateurs. Le mémoire commence par présenter le forum Reddit, son histoire et son fonctionnement avant de développer une revue de littérature sur le discours de haine et le misogynie, notamment l'absence de consensus sur sa définition ainsi que les défis juridiques et opérationnels de sa régulation. Ensuite, pour comprendre comment les utilisateurs et les modérateurs de Reddit régulent les discours de haine misogyne, le cadre conceptuel développe le concept de normes sociales, en particulier les normes sociales en ligne. Parmi les autres concepts mobilisés figurent les chambres d'écho et la théorie de l'étiquetage. Une approche qualitative a été adoptée pour faire une analyse schématique d’un corpus de données empiriques publiquement disponibles sur Reddit qui a été sélectionné pour son lien avec le discours haineux misogyne. Cinq communautés (« subreddits ») ont été sélectionnées pour explorer la manière dont les discours misogynes sont régulés. Les résultats présentent une typologie des actions disponibles pour les utilisateurs et les modérateurs, ainsi que les règles de Reddit et de chaque communauté sur lesquelles ils et elles s'appuient pour réguler le discours haineux misogyne. La typologie d'actions est représentée au sein de schémas répétitifs qui mettent en valeur la façon dont la régulation se produit sur les communautés. Plusieurs exemples illustratifs sont offerts de ces négociations réglementaires. La recherche conclue que l'étiquetage par les actions répétitives pourrait potentiellement contribuer à la négociation des normes sociales entre les utilisateurs et les modérateurs et ainsi avoir des effets sur la façon dont les échanges se produisent sur les fils de discussions, au sein du forum. Cette négociation des normes ferait donc un lien direct quant à la fine ligne qui subsiste entre la liberté d'expression et le discours haineux, et recadrer ce qui en constitue ou non, pour comprendre les types de discours acceptables sur cette plateforme. / In the current context of polarization on social networks, this Master's thesis examines the multi-level negotiation of social norms around hate speech on the Reddit forum. The research focuses on the regulation of content by moderators and users. The thesis begins by introducing the Reddit forum, its history and operations before developing a literature review on hate speech and misogyny, including a lack of consensus on its definition and the legal and operational challenges of regulating it. Then, to better understand how Reddit users and moderators regulate misogynous hate speech, the conceptual framework develops the concept of social norms, specifically online social norms. Other concept of echo chambers and labeling theory are also mobilized. The research adopts a qualitative approach to conduct schematic analysis of a body of publicly available empirical data on Reddit that was selected for its connection to misogynistic hate speech. Five communities (“subreddits”) were selected to explore how misogynistic speech is regulated. In the findings, I present a typology of actions available to users and moderators, as well as the rules of Reddit and each community that they rely on to regulate misogynistic hate speech. The typology of actions is represented within repetitive patterns that highlight how regulation occurs on communities. Several illustrative examples are offered of these regulatory negotiations. The research concludes that labeling through repetitive actions could potentially contribute to the negotiation of social norms between users and moderators and thus have effects on the way exchanges occur on threads within the forum. This negotiation of norms would thus directly relate to the fine line that remains between free speech and hate speech, thus reframing what does and does not constitute hate speech, in order to understand the types of speech that are acceptable on this platform.

Les adolescentes et adolescents multiplient leurs activités sur Instagram, Snapchat, Tiktok et autres réseaux sociaux. Cette présence en ligne inquiète puisque plusieurs recherches corrèlent l’exposition aux écrans à certains impacts négatifs sur le bien-être. Ces préoccupations vis-à-vis le temps-écran mènent l’État, les entreprises et les organismes communautaires à proposer des recommandations qui visent l’autorégulation. Bien qu’intéressante, cette approche en prévention éclipse les dynamiques collectives mises en lumière par les études en sciences sociales qui rapportent la perspective des ados, suggérant que les réseaux sociaux jouent un rôle important dans le maintien de relations sociales et l’expression personnelle. Cette thèse se penche sur les façons dont les personnes adolescentes participent collectivement et au quotidien à la médiatisation de pratiques sociales dans l’écosystème des plateformes, particulièrement via les réseaux sociaux. Elle rappelle l’importance d’écouter les ados avec leur allégresse, leurs incertitudes et leurs contradictions, afin d’incorporer davantage les questions sociales lorsqu’on parle de leur utilisation des réseaux sociaux, notamment en développant des interventions qui les concernent. L’aspect social de la question de recherche est d’abord observé à travers le concept sensibilisateur de la deep mediatization, rappelant que les pratiques mises en données aujourd’hui sont le berceau des transformations sociales de demain. Avec une attention particulière à l’écosystème des plateformes, les mécanismes de datafication, commodification et sélection ainsi que les affordances permettent de faire un pont entre l’expérience rapportée par les jeunes, la formation de normes sociales, et l’architecture des réseaux sociaux. Mobilisant une méthodologie qualitative, cette démarche donne une voix à des jeunes de 14 à 17 ans de milieux différents, en documentant leur expérience des médias sociaux grâce à une analyse thématique de 19 entrevues et de 2 groupes de discussion. Les résultats de la thèse documentent les façons nuancées dont les personnes adolescentes composent avec leurs relations sociales et la panoplie de fonctionnalités pour converser, publier et scroller. Ces pratiques sociales génèrent des données qui peuvent bénéficier aux réseaux sociaux, et nous invitent à considérer l’ado non pas comme une victime des effets des plateformes, mais comme une personne occupant un rôle actif dans le façonnement de leur écosystème. Cinq normes sont identifiées pour étudier la force injonctive du collectif dans les pratiques des ados: 1) la sensibilité à autrui au moment de converser; 2) la disponibilité en tout temps pour converser; 3) la fréquence et la qualité du contenu partagé selon le type de publication; 4) se présenter authentiquement conforme et 5) scroller sur les réseaux sociaux les plus populaires. Enfin, on apprend que les ados considèrent davantage les relations sociales que les fonctionnalités lorsqu’une pratique est collectivement imbriquée, comme l’entretien d’une conversation médiatisée ou la publication. Et à l’opposé, les ados se disent plus affecté.e.s par les fonctionnalités du réseau social quand l’activité est réalisée individuellement, comme scroller. Comprendre l’agentivité de l’environnement en ligne et son processus normatif selon le caractère social d’une pratique nous informe de nouvelles manières d’intervenir auprès des ados pour une utilisation plus lucide du numérique. / Adolescents are using Instagram, Snapchat, Tiktok and other social media more than ever before. Their increased presence online is worrisome because a number of studies establish correlations between screen time and negative impacts on well-being. Concerns about the amount of time spent with screens have led governments, companies and community organizations to issue recommendations that call for self-regulation of time spent online. Despite its benefits, this approach to prevention fails to consider the collective dynamics highlighted by social science research that, drawing on adolescents’ perspectives, illustrate the important role of social media in personal expression and maintaining social relationships. This thesis examines the ways in which adolescents participate collectively and on a daily basis in the mediatization of social practices within an ecosystem of platforms, particularly through their activities on social media. It argues for the importance of listening to adolescents’ voices, with all their enthusiasm, uncertainties, and contradictions, in order to look beyond individual uses of social media when designing programs and interventions that concern them. We frame our observations using the sensitizing concept of deep mediatization, that reminds us how today’s data practices are the source of tomorrow’s societal transformations. Within an ecosystemic perspective on digital platforms, the concept of affordances establishes links between the mechanisms of datafication, commodification and selection, platform architectures, the formation of social norms and youth’s experiences on social media. Using a qualitative methodology, we documented the social media experiences of young people aged 14 to 17 from a variety of backgrounds, through a thematic analysis of 19 interviews and two focus groups. The results document the subtle ways that adolescents manage their social relationships and the multiple functionalities offered by these media to converse online, post content and scroll. While direct messaging, posting and scrolling all generate data that fuel the economic model of various social media platforms, the active role of young people on social media invites us to consider adolescents not as victims needing protection from social media but as fullfledged participants in shaping their ecosystem. The injunctive effect of the community on adolescents’ practices is apparent in five norms identified from their comments : 1) being sensitive to others while direct messaging; 2) the expectation of constant availability to converse online; 3) implicit rules about the frequency and quality of content posted according to the type of publication; 4) presenting oneself authentically while fitting in (i.e. being a unique individual but not too different); and 5) scrolling on the most popular social media. Our results demonstrate that when a practice is collectively configured and visible, as in the case direct messaging or posting, adolescents rely heavily on social cues and relationships and platform functionalities have limited effects. In contrast, they appear to be more dependent on what the platforms propose when an activity, like scrolling, is primarily individual. Understanding how the agency of the online environment and the normative processes at work vary according to the social characteristics of different social media practices opens the door to imagining new ways of intervening in order to encourage a more lucid use of digital environments by youth.

En systematisk litteraturstudie om vilka faktorer som kan orsaka matematikängslan hos elever i grundskolan och hur lärare kan arbeta för att stärka elevernas självförtroende och hjälpa dem att minska denna ängslan. Vi människor föds inte med matematiska förmågor och automatiskt blir antingen bättre eller sämre på matematik, utan vi utvecklas och lär med tiden att bli matematiska. I studien lyfts normer och attityder till matematik fram och problematiseras i samband med elevers matematikängslan. Studiens resultat visar att det framför allt är yttre sociala faktorer,normer och negativa handlingar som påverkar elevers matematikängslan. Detta kan leda till att elever utvecklar ett lägre självförtroende och negativa attityder till ämnet matematik. Det kan därmed vara svårt att bryta detta då det blir en negativ spiral, vilket kan resultera i att elever ser på sig själva som mindre matematiska. Men genom att bygga bra lärar-elev-relationer, stärka elevens självförtroende och skapa positiva attityder och goda normer till ämnet matematik så 3kan lärare hjälpa eleven att minska denna ängslan. Därför ligger ett stort ansvar på att lärare utvecklar kunskaper i hur de kan bemöta elever med matematikängslan. / A systematic literature review on factors that could cause math anxiety in primary school students and how teachers can work to strengthen students' self-confidence and help them reduce this anxiety. We humans are not born with mathematical abilities and automatically become either better or worse at mathematics, but we develop and learn over time to become mathematical. We highlight norms and attitudes to mathematics in the study and problematize them in connection with students' mathematics anxiety. The results of the study indicate that it is most social factors, norms and negative acts and comments that affect students' math anxiety. This leads to developing lower self-confidence and negative attitudes towards the subject of mathematics. This could be difficult to break as it becomes a negative spiral, which results in the student seeing themselves as less mathematical. But by building good teacher-student relationships, building the student's self-confidence, and creating positive attitudes and good norms towards the subject of mathematics, teachers can help the student to reduce this anxiety. Therefore, teachers have a responsibility to learn how they can help students with math anxiety.

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La conscience et les structures mentales collectives d’une société sont ancrées dans des normes et des cadres sociopolitiques, culturels et historiques dont certains l’orienteraient vers des conditions produisant de la violence et de l'inégalité. Il est donc nécessaire d'examiner minutieusement ce qui a conduit à un ensemble de normes qui provoquent l'inégalité sociale et l'injustice dans une société. L'une des hypothèses de ce mémoire est que la pratique du yoga pourrait contribuer à une transformation sociale menant à la justice. En outre, une transformation vers la justice sociale peut se produire en remontant la séquence d'événements causés par ces structures mentales afin de problématiser l'injustice à ses racines. Une telle transformation doit reconditionner les cadres de pensée et permettre une conscience inconditionnelle, où l'inégalité et les structures binaires n'existent plus. Ainsi, la question principale de cette recherche est la suivante: comment la pratique du yoga peut-elle contribuer à identifier et à réformer les structures mentales et les normes sociales de telle sorte qu'elle mène à l'égalité et à la justice sociale? La pratique du yoga qui transforme les individus par l'identification, le déconditionnement et le reconditionnement de leurs structures mentales est un affinement progressif de la conscience individuelle - qui fait aussi partie de la conscience collective - qui rend la conscience collective plus sensible aux structures sociopolitiques qui doivent être refondées en direction de la justice sociale. Ceci sera discuté en relation avec la perspective holistique du yoga qui est à la base de la philosophie yogique. Pour aborder cette question, ce mémoire s'appuie sur les points spirituels et pratiques du Yoga Sutra de Patanjali, les enseignements de B.K.S. Iyengar sur la pratique du yoga, et les perspectives socio-politiques de The Force of Nonviolence de Judith Butler. / In a society the collective consciousness and mental structures are rooted in cultural and historical norms as well as in socio-political frameworks. Some of these norms can shape mental structures in such ways that they produce violence and inequality. It is therefore necessary to scrutinize what has led to a set of norms that cause social inequality and injustice in a society. One of the hypothesis in this thesis, is that the practice of yoga could contribute to a social transformation that leads to justice. In addition, a transformation towards social justice may occur by tracing back the sequence of events caused by these mental structures in order to problematize injustice at its roots. Such transformation has to recondition thought frames and enable an unconditional consciousness, in which inequality and binary structures no longer exist. Thus, the main question of this research is: how can yoga practice contribute to identifying and reforming mental structures and social norms in such ways that it leads to equality and social justice? The yoga practice that transforms individuals through the identification, deconditioning, and reconditioning of their mental structures is a progressive refinement of individual consciousness - as part of the collective consciousness - that makes the collective consciousness more sensitive to socio-political structures that need to be transformed toward social justice. This will be discussed in relation to the holistic perspective of yoga that is the basis of yoga philosophy. To approach its main question, this thesis draws on the spiritual and practical points of Patanjali's Yoga Sutra, B.K.S. Iyengar's teachings on yoga practice, and the socio-political perspectives of Judith Butler's The Force of Nonviolence.

This master thesis analyzes the influence of psychological barriers of consumers from Germany, Sweden, and Iran for using sustainable transportation modes. Climate change has started to change the way people travel. Yet prior research has shown that consumers from all over the world lack consistency between their behavioral intention and their actual behavior. In the case of traveling, this means that a significant number of consumers intends to use sustainable transportation modes, but fails to use them in the end. The reasons for this so-called intention-behavior gap in consumers' minds have been researched successfully and frequently in the past two decades. The novelty of this present thesis is the international comparison of travelers from three different countries and the explicit focus on voluntary travel. The according research questions are: RQ 1:  To what extent is there a gap between the intention and behavior of leisure travelers          regarding choosing sustainable transportation vehicles? RQ 2:  Which group of consumers (inclined abstainers or disinclined actors[1]) plays the bigger      role in creating this gap? RQ 3:  What are the determinants and barriers of using more sustainable transportation     vehicles in leisure transportation? RQ 4:  How is the sustainable behavior of leisure travelers in Sweden, Germany, and Iran            different? To answer the research questions, an online survey in Swedish (n1 = 130), German (n2 = 128), and Persian (n3 = 127) language was carried out ( ∑ n = 385) in April 2020 with a convenience sampling method and analyzed in May 2020. The results show that there is a slightly positive intention-behavior gap in the Swedish sample and a slightly negative intention-behavior gap in the Iranian sample. In the German sample, no significant intention-behavior gap has been found. Moreover, a higher level of environmental attitude, a higher level of environmental knowledge, a higher level of perceived effectiveness (of the consumers' own actions), and a higher level of social norms increases the intention of leisure travelers in Sweden, Germany, and Iran to use sustainable vehicles for leisure traveling - both for short and for long trips. The impact of perceived value and perceived price of sustainable transportation modes, as well as the impact of consumers' sustainable lifestyle on the on the travel intention are not supported in all three countries. Additionally, distance between origin and destination has been found to moderate the impact of determinants on intention. The moderating role of distance also varies in different countries. [1] See the literature review chapter for an explanation

South Africa has gone through immense changes in the past two decades. The period around 1994 has been characterised by a comprehensive set of political, social and economic changes, which greatly influenced not only the lives of individuals in this county but also many businesses, organisations and companies. Further to this, South Africa has become increasingly intercultural in orientation as companies persevered in establishing intricate networks with partners in a diverse set of cultures. This has put enormous strain on organisations to remain competitive in the market. It is critical that organisations develop a more resilient workforce with greater psychological capacities to succeed in the on-going war for talent. Attracting and retaining talented employees can give organisations a sustained competitive advantage. In view of the growing intricacies in the business world, ambiguity in markets, and employees’ attitudes, it is crucial that organisations invest in psychological assessments. However, investing in valid and reliable psychological assessments has become more difficult due to vast cultural diversity South Africa comprises off. The general objective of this study was to explore social desirability in the white Afrikaans group. A qualitative design was used and a quota non-probability sampling method was implemented among white Afrikaans-speaking people of South Africa (N=60), who differed from one another with regard to age, gender and socio-economic status. The measuring instrument was a semi-structured interview, which was based on the phenomenological approach. The results of the interviews were transcribed and captured in Excel. Content analysis was used to interpret the responses in socially desirable themes. Independent psychologists and language and cultural experts were employed in order to validate the initial interpretations. The descriptive terms were reduced through the use of cluster analysis. The analysis included the grouping of synonyms and antonyms, together with the use of dictionaries, literature and knowledge about content. In the representation of social desirability and impression management strategies within the white Afrikaner group, six main themes with sixty sub-themes in total were identified. The six themes are facilitating, gender-based, intellect-openness, interpersonal relatedness, intrapersonal relatedness and value-based. Firstly, to facilitate others by giving advice and guidance will be seen as desirable and make a favourable impression. Secondly, to display characteristics that are typically associated with males and females, such as masculinity and femininity, will be seen as desirable and can make a positive impression. Thirdly, having a unique natural ability or skill and being receptive to new and different ideas will be seen as desirable and make a good impression on others. Fourthly, remaining constructive in one’s relationships, and fifthly, remaining constructive in one’s inner thoughts and possessing inner confidence and having respect will make a favourable impression and can be seen as socially desirable. Lastly, exhibiting moral consciousness and being trustworthy, loyal and reliable will make a positive impression and will be perceived as desirable by the white Afrikaner group. Recommendations for future research and for practice were made. / MCom (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014

South Africa has gone through immense changes in the past two decades. The period around 1994 has been characterised by a comprehensive set of political, social and economic changes, which greatly influenced not only the lives of individuals in this county but also many businesses, organisations and companies. Further to this, South Africa has become increasingly intercultural in orientation as companies persevered in establishing intricate networks with partners in a diverse set of cultures. This has put enormous strain on organisations to remain competitive in the market. It is critical that organisations develop a more resilient workforce with greater psychological capacities to succeed in the on-going war for talent. Attracting and retaining talented employees can give organisations a sustained competitive advantage. In view of the growing intricacies in the business world, ambiguity in markets, and employees’ attitudes, it is crucial that organisations invest in psychological assessments. However, investing in valid and reliable psychological assessments has become more difficult due to vast cultural diversity South Africa comprises off. The general objective of this study was to explore social desirability in the white Afrikaans group. A qualitative design was used and a quota non-probability sampling method was implemented among white Afrikaans-speaking people of South Africa (N=60), who differed from one another with regard to age, gender and socio-economic status. The measuring instrument was a semi-structured interview, which was based on the phenomenological approach. The results of the interviews were transcribed and captured in Excel. Content analysis was used to interpret the responses in socially desirable themes. Independent psychologists and language and cultural experts were employed in order to validate the initial interpretations. The descriptive terms were reduced through the use of cluster analysis. The analysis included the grouping of synonyms and antonyms, together with the use of dictionaries, literature and knowledge about content. In the representation of social desirability and impression management strategies within the white Afrikaner group, six main themes with sixty sub-themes in total were identified. The six themes are facilitating, gender-based, intellect-openness, interpersonal relatedness, intrapersonal relatedness and value-based. Firstly, to facilitate others by giving advice and guidance will be seen as desirable and make a favourable impression. Secondly, to display characteristics that are typically associated with males and females, such as masculinity and femininity, will be seen as desirable and can make a positive impression. Thirdly, having a unique natural ability or skill and being receptive to new and different ideas will be seen as desirable and make a good impression on others. Fourthly, remaining constructive in one’s relationships, and fifthly, remaining constructive in one’s inner thoughts and possessing inner confidence and having respect will make a favourable impression and can be seen as socially desirable. Lastly, exhibiting moral consciousness and being trustworthy, loyal and reliable will make a positive impression and will be perceived as desirable by the white Afrikaner group. Recommendations for future research and for practice were made. / MCom (Industrial Psychology), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2014