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This thesis examines whether intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) can socialize member states by testing the effect of shared IGO memberships on dyadic arms transfers. IGO socialization is one of many proposed causal mechanisms by which IGO memberships might reduce interstate conflict. This thesis argues that the institutional socialization hypothesis (ISH), which asserts that shared IGO memberships will lead to interest convergence between member states, uses an invalid conceptualization and measurement of socialization. Instead, socialization is re-conceptualized as increased trust between member states, and re-operationalized using dyadic arms transfers as a proxy for trust. The study uses linear regression with cross-sectional panel data from the years 1960 to 1965 to test if the number of shared IGO memberships a dyad has five years prior leads to an increase in the number of arms transfers in a given dyad-year. The results are suggestive of a positive relationship between the number of shared IGO memberships and dyadic arms transfers, but are not conclusive at a 0.05 level of significance.

This study is intended to explore the interactive effect of various interpersonal groups and longitudinal maturation on the socialization of individuals within a culture. It will deal with conflict resolution and the formation of a transitory sense of self informed by George Herbert Mead's perspective with an emphasis on symbolic interaction. I have chosen as my sample group a division I female college soccer team in the eastern United States . My time as an assistant coach has given me access to the daily lives of these players for a two year period during which I have acted as a participant observer. Although the study is limited to a small group of elite athletes, it is presumed that similar processes are at work each time an individual enters a new social setting or attempts to reconcile conflicting norms between different groups. When such groups collide, the individual is forced to conform to one at the expense of the other(s). This creates what I will call deviant conformity / Master of Science

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Thesis advisor: Usha Tummala-Narra / Thesis advisor: Belle Liang / In 2015, one-in-seven U.S. infants was Multiracial, nearly triple the amount in 1980, and one of the fastest growing subgroups of this population is Black/White Multiracial people (Pew Research Center, 2015). Black/White Multiracial emerging adult women have not received adequate attention in research, despite the growing population. Black/White Multiracial women receive implicit and explicit messages about their racialized physical features including skin color, hair, and body size from family members and peers (Root, 1998; Kelch-Oliver & Leslie, 2007; Buckley & Carter, 2008). Additionally, remnants of racist and sexist stereotypes of Black women such as the Jezebel, a hypersexualized archetype of a light-skinned Black woman, still permeate U.S. culture and impact Black women (Watson et al., 2012). However, there is no research that explores how such interactions with family members, peers, and the larger social context impact Black/White women’s perceptions of themselves and relationships with others. The present study conducted semi-structured interviews of 10 Black/White Multiracial emerging adult women to explore the socialization messages that they receive around race, gender, and body, and how those messages influence their self-perceptions and relationships. Through conventional content analysis, the findings of the present study revealed themes including a lack of discussion about race within families, gendered, racialized messages, often rooted in anti-Blackness, about the bodies of Black/White Multiracial women within families and peer groups, intrapsychic conflict to make meaning of conflicting messages, authentic relationships, and the expression of identity. Implications for clinical practice, community level interventions and research are discussed. / Thesis (PhD) — Boston College, 2022. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Counseling, Developmental and Educational Psychology.

Black mothers socialize their daughters to embody the strong Black woman (SBW) schema to help them navigate gendered racist oppression. While research indicates that ascribing to the SBW schema offers Black women psychosocial benefits (e.g., increased self-esteem), identifying with the SBW schema has been linked to several negative psychological outcomes (e.g., anxiety, depression, and stress). Considering the evidenced negative implications associated with identifying with the SBW schema on Black women's mental health, the current study had three aims: (1) investigate the socialization messages Black women received about strong Black womanhood, (2) explore the extent to which they identified with these messages, and (3) assess the implications of this socialization on Black women's functioning. To address these aims researchers conducted semi-structured interviews with 11 Black college women (Mage = 20.09; SD = 1.04). For this manuscript, we extracted data pertaining to aim one and analyzed this data using a consensual qualitative research (CQR) data approach. Findings revealed messages Black women were given about strong Black womanhood (i.e., know your worth, depend on yourself, overcome societal barriers, little to no messages about strong Black womanhood, and additional responses) and illuminated behaviors mothers modeled that exemplified strength (i.e., self-sufficient, preserving, caretaking, and additional responses). Findings derived from this study have the potential to inform clinical intervention with Black women and, more specifically, provide insight as to how clinicians may work with Black women to mitigate the impact of the SBW schema on their mental health.

Emerging literature emphasizes the importance of mentoring in the development of minority youth. In particular, mentoring influences the development of youths' sense of self and self-concept. By examining the conceptual frameworks of both mentoring and racial socialization, this study summarizes the theoretical processes associated with youth development and how such development relates to young women's ethnic/racial identity including their body image. The mentoring relationship is examined with a small pool of ethnic-minority, college-aged female participants to explore whether there is a relationship between having received positive mentoring and the participant's current body image perceptions.

Diversity is an inevitable condition of modern societies, in which individuals come into contact with one another with various backgrounds; such as, race, ethnicity, nationality, sexual orientation, religion, and ideology. My dissertation answers three questions: what are the individual characteristics that influence social tolerance of people?’ What are the important things (education level, economic condition, gender, religiosity, etc.) that hold people in a society together as well as influence them positively or negatively to report social tolerance toward religiously different, racially different, sexually different (homosexuals), and nationally (immigrants) different people? From there, I am also trying to answer, if any, the impact of social intolerance on people’s overall well-being? And finally, I am attempting to explore the impact of the socio-historical developments in three societies (United States, Turkey, and South Africa) on social intolerance attitudes (racism, homophobia, xenophobia, and religious intolerance) of people? Previous studies on tolerance have used samples from either one country or a few countries from a continent. As a result, it remained unclear why some characteristics were significantly associated with social tolerance. Using the World Values Survey, I analyze the association between reporting social tolerance within individual and country level contexts. Additionally, using a historical comparative analysis approach, I explore societal factors that influence people to report social tolerance toward racially different, immigrants/foreign workers, homosexuals, and religiously different people in the United States, Turkey, and South Africa. In my multi-level logistic regression analyses, I find that as educational attainment of individuals’ increases, they are more likely to be socially tolerant toward racially different, immigrant/foreign workers, homosexuals, and those who practice a different religion. Schooling plays the most important role on whether individuals will be socially tolerant or intolerant. At the country level, I find that those who live in highly corrupted countries tend to report lower levels of social tolerance for all dimensions. My findings show that there is a connection between social tolerance, as a type of negative emotion, and individuals health outcomes. Also, my findings show that as social intolerance increases the likelihood of reporting good and very good health and mental well-being decreases.