Based on four articles, this compilation thesis analyses the demonstrated com-petence defining a medical doctor, to the extent to which he or she acquires a high status and high level of employability in professional practice. Overall, the thesis aimed to describe and analyse professional socialization during doctors' transition from education to work. Questions addressed included how higher education should be understood as preparation for professional practice, how ideals of the future professional were conceived and how these ideals differenti-ated 'good' from 'bad' doctors in professional development and recruitment. The research employed a version of practice theory as its theoretical framework, developed with the aid of work by Pierre Bourdieu, Judith Butler, John Dewey and Theodore Schatzki. Throughout the individual studies, ideals were con-structed and understood as moral imperatives, stating how doctors are expected to perform in professional practice. Article I explored the ideals of academia and higher education practices in a general sense. In this study, the ideals involve the perceived function of higher education in relation to work. Three different and conflicting perspectives were constructed with the aid of a literature study. Arti-cle II was a survey investigation of how two cohorts (n=169) of recent graduates from a Swedish medical programme viewed their competence and the prepara-tion they received for work through the medical programme. The results show that graduates might be overly prepared from a knowledge perspective, while lacking in practical skills and preparation for difficult situations in the work-place. Article III investigated the ideals of the medical programme using an interview study with eight medical students and eight medical teachers. The ideals constructed show how conflicting ideals, such as strength and humility, shape conceptions of the future professional. Finally, Article IV reports an inter-view study with recruiters of medical interns in Sweden's 21 most popular hospi-tals. Results showed that the most attractive candidates balanced two traits: orientation towards performance and orientation towards human relations. They also successfully demonstrated possession of these qualities in their appli-cation and subsequent interview. Overall, the results from the studies indicated that there are great differences between views of proper preparation for work and views of the highly-employable doctor. While medical knowledge and skills were seen as important in preparation for work, they were absent in the views of the highly-competent and employable doctor. Instead, generic attributes, such as drive, curiosity, cooperativeness, warmth, maturity and reflectiveness, char-acterised descriptions of the most accomplished medical professionals. These attributes also were seen primarily as developed before or 'beside' the formal medical education programme.

The purpose of this thesis is to study some of the everyday interactional processes that take place in a special teaching group of children diagnosed with AD/HD. This group operates in an elementary school in a Swedish multicultural neighborhood. The starting point of the study is that AD/HD is much more than a neuropsychiatric diagnosis in the school’s pedagogical practice. The diagnosis contributes to shape many of the complex processes related to identity, socialization and learning that take a central place in the group’s daily interaction. The thesis combines an ethnomethodological and intersectional approach to analyze the everyday interactional and conversational practices, as well as various institutional and social categorization processes, of importance to the group. The study is based on a one-year ethno-graphic fieldwork and focus mainly on field notes and video recordings collected during different teaching activities. The thesis explores how the teachers accomplish different arrangements and practices to meet the pupils’ special educational needs. By analyzing these arrangements and practices the study shows how teachers and pupils establish meaning and understanding of “the problematic pupil with AD/HD” in everyday interaction and in conversation. The focus is upon the role that practices like descriptions, categorizations, and identity attributions, play in the interaction between members of the group when they negotiate positions in terms of normativity and resistance. Also important is how the institutional ordering between teachers and the pupils is related to social orderings along the lines of disability, ethnicity, class and gender. The analysis shows how the everyday arrangements and practices applied in the group, in combination with the daily production of meaning, generate different selection and stigmatization processes that school and special teaching ideologies were trying to prevent. The study stress the need for new pedagogical approaches to increase the understanding of those processes, as well as the articulation of new pedagogical alternatives that better respond to pupils with special educational needs. / Pojkar i behov av särskilt stöd - en studie om maskulinitet, särbehandling och socialisation i särskilda undervisningsgrupper

This thesis is an exploration into the socialization of researchers as it takes place in various research practices. Using a lifeworld-perspective, a qualitative interview-study with doctoral students from different academic milieus is conducted. The organizational context of the study is the academic department as it is experienced, apprehended and constructed by the doctoral student. The “societal” context is described and discussed in a brief analytical exposé of Swedish science policy in the last decade of the twentieth century. Questioning the political reliance on a systems-perspective, and the shortcomings of system theory for the understanding of research practices in different academic milieus, a lifeworld-theoretical turn is suggested. A lifeworld-perspective is formulated in a meta-theoretical discussion focusing on the concepts of practice, time and language. Jürgen Habermas’ critique of phenomenological lifeworld-perspectives is the point of departure and theoretical inputs are derived from the sociology of knowledge, the sociology of scientific knowledge and phenomenological sociology. The solution is found in an integrative model of socialization as continual synchronization of subjective systems of coordinates and socio-cultural networks. Mediating between subjective consciousness and inter-subjective knowledge is language, and this is manifested in concrete practices observed in “real-time”. The empirical study reveals some influences of the system on the lifeworld. “Inside” the lifeworld, however, the interviewees mostly use their departments as frames of reference in their descriptions and discussions. A more elaborate exploration of the life-world results in an understanding of socialization in terms of positioning. This concept denotes the ways in which the interviewees describe themselves, their socio-cultural surroundings and themselves in relation to these milieus. At any given moment, positioning can be understood as a “co-construction” of subjective position and socio-cultural milieu. Positioning is thereby the empirical correlate to synchronization, and socialization can be “read off” from the ways in which doctoral students position themselves “here and now”. Problematic, though, is that “doctoral student”, and especially “female doctoral student”, are found to be vague and vulnerable categories with no clear meanings for the socialised nor for the socio-cultural environment. In a more speculative manner, these difficulties of positioning are put in relation to “scientist” as a vague category. If “scientist” cannot be defined, how then can we know what “scientists in the making” are? This thesis offers an insight into the plural “realities” of doctoral students in different academic milieus. It offers a lifeworld-perspective on socialization and is thereby relevant for discussions of post-graduate education among scholars as well as among policy makers.

Faces constitute one of the most important stimuli for humans. Studies show that women recognize more faces than men, and that females are particularly able to recognize female faces, thus exhibiting an own-sex bias. In the present thesis, three empirical studies investigated the generality of sex differences in face recognition and the female own-sex bias. Study I explored men’s and women’s face recognition performance for Bangladeshi and Swedish female and male faces of adults and children. Result showed sex differences, favoring women, for all face categories. Study II assessed boys’ and girls’ ability to recognize female and male faces from two age- and ethnic groups. The result demonstrated that girls recognize more faces than boys do, but that no sex differences were present for Swedish male faces. The results from Study I and II consistently demonstrate that females show reliable own-sex biases independent of whether the female faces were young, old, or of Bangladeshi or Swedish origin. In an attempt to explain the mechanisms of sex differences in face recognition and the female own-sex bias, Study III investigated men’s and women’s recognition performance for androgynous faces, either labeled “men”, “women”, or “faces”. The result showed that women told to remember “women” recognized more faces than women told to remember faces labeled “men” or “faces”, and that sex differences were present for androgynous faces, regardless of the label. Based on these findings, it is suggested that females’ attention is in particular directed towards other females, resulting in an own-sex bias. It is also suggested that there may be a difference in females’ and males’ orientation toward other individuals. This difference can have a biological base, which together with socialization may result in sex differences in face recognition.

Vi är intresserade av att studera ”vad som styr ekonomistudenternas val av arbetsgivare” eftersom vi själva är ekonomistudenter och har börjat fundera på framtida arbetsgivare. Det är även intressant för företag och organisationer att veta vad som styr ekonomistudenternas val av arbetsgivare eftersom det kan gör det lättare att locka till sig passande arbetskraft. Men när företagen och organisationerna väl har hittat rätt medarbetare gäller det att behålla dem och genom att veta vilka behov de anställda har kan arbetsgivaren tillfredsställa dessa behov, vilket resulterar i nöjda anställda. Vårt syfte med uppsatsen är att undersöka vad som styr ekonomistudenterna val av framtida arbetsgivare utifrån deras motivationsfaktorer och om dessa motivationsfaktorer stämmer in på befintliga motivationsteorier. Vi är dessutom nyfikna på om företag och organisationer vet vad som intresserar ekonomistudenterna samt vad som kan få studenter att vilja bosätta sig i Gävle efter avslutade studier. Vi använde oss av mailintervjuer för att samla in material till vår undersökning eftersom vår första idé om att ha fokusgruppsdiskussioner inte gick att genomföra på grund av lågt intresse. Mailintervjuerna genomfördes med nio stycken ekonomistudenter vid Högskolan i Gävle och tre stycken organisationer i Gävle som är med i NU!, Näringslivsintegrerad utbildning. För att få djupare insikt i vad som motivera människor har vi valt att fördjupa oss i ett flertal motivationsteorier. Vi har valt några, för oss, välkända teorier för att skapa en grund att komplettera med mindre omtalade teorier som ger andra infallsvinklar, bl.a. diverse teorier av Hans L. Zetterberg. Motivationsteorierna kompletteras ytterligare med fakta om arbetsmarknaden i Gävleborgs län, en undersökning om vilka förväntningar studenterna vid Högskolan i Gävle har på sin framtida arbetsmarknad, Universum Communications ”FöretagsBarometern” samt insikt i livets socialiseringsprocess. De viktigaste motivationsfaktorerna som vår svarsgrupp tittar på rörande framtida arbetsgivare är: arbetsuppgifterna (är de stimulerande, varierande och meningsfulla?), lönen (kompenserar lönen min ansträngning och ”förlorade” tid?), utvecklingsmöjligheter (kan jag utvecklas både personligt och yrkesmässigt?), arbets- och pendlingstid (finns det tid att umgås med familj och vänner samt ägna sig åt fritidsintressen?) och trivsam arbetsmiljö (kommer jag att trivas här?). Av de motivationsteorier som vi valt var det ingen som fullständigt förklarade svarsgruppens val av motivationsfaktorer. Dock kan utvalda delar av teorierna ge viss förståelse av studenternas val, men för en djupare förståelse krävs en kombination av flera teorier. Arbetsgivarna verkar ha viss insikt i vad studenterna i vår svarsgrupp söker men inte en komplett bild, eftersom ingen av dem nämner arbetsuppgifterna som en viktig faktor. Båda svarsgrupperna tror att en positivare arbetsmarknad skulle kunna attrahera studenter att stanna i Gävle, d.v.s. att det finns arbeten inom ekonomiområdet. Många av ekonomistudenterna kan tänka sig att stanna i Gävle om de får ett arbete som de trivs med. / We are interested in studying “what determines the students of business administration’s choice of employer” since we are students of business administration ourselves and have started to think about our future employers. This subject is also interesting for companies and organizations since knowledge about what determines the choice can make it easier to attract suitable co-workers. When the companies and organisations have found the right employees it’s a matter of keeping them and one way of doing this is by knowing and satisfying the employees’ needs. The purpose of this essay is to examine what determines the students of business administration’s choices of future employer through their factors of motivation and if these factors is consistent with existing theories on motivation. We also want to find out if companies and organizations know what students of business administration are interested in and what can be done to make students want to live in Gävle after they are finished with their studies. The method we have chosen for our study is e-mail interviews since our first idea of discussions in focus groups couldn’t be followed through because of a lack of interest. Nine students of business administration at the University College of Gävle and three organizations in Gävle, that are involved in the NU!-project, participated in the interviews. To get a deeper knowledge into what motivates people we have chosen to study a number of motivational theories. We have chosen a few, to us, well-known theories to create a base to which we add less discussed theories to give us different angles of approach. We also present facts about the labour market in Gävleborgs län, a study concerning what expectations the students at the University College of Gävle have on their future labour market, Universum Communications’ “FöretagsBarometern” and an understanding of the process of socialisation. The most important motivational factors that the studentgroup is concerned with regarding future employers are: the work assignments (are they inspiring, diverse and meaningful?), the salary (is it a fair compensation?), growth opportunities (both personally and professionally?), work hours and commuting time (will I have time for family, friends and interests?) and a pleasant work environment (will I like working here?). The motivational theories that we chose didn’t fully explain the students’ choice of motivational factors. There is however certain parts of the theories that offers some understanding of the students’ choices, but to get a deeper understanding a combination of several theories is needed. The employers seem to have some insight in what the students of business administration are looking for but they don’t have the complete picture, since none of them mention work assignments as an important factor. Both groups think that a more positive labour market could attract more students to stay in Gävle, i.e. that there are work related to business administration available. Many of the students of business administration could imagine staying in Gävle if they got a work that suited them.

ABSTRACT Titel: “Some kids really love those commercials” -A study of how children experience and construe commercials. (Vissa barn älskar faktiskt sånna dära TV-reklamer” – En övergripande studie om hur barn upplever och tolkar tv-reklam.) Number of pages: 40 Author: Lotta Norberg Tutor: Amelie Hössjer Course: Media and Communication Studies C Period: Autumn term 2007 University: Division of Media and Communication, Department of Information Science, Uppsala University Purpose/Aim: The aim of this essay is to make a study of how children experience and construe commercials. Key questions to be answered are; can children distinguish commercials from TV programmes? What do the children think of commercials? How do they watch commercials? What do they think about a ban against commercials directed to children? Do they understand the purpose of commercials? Do their buying habits change? Material/Method: A qualitative method with 18 interviews and 3 observations with 7, 9 and 11 year old children. Main results: The children in my study can distinguish commercials from TV programs. What they think about commercials and how they watch commercials depend on their stage of development and from previous experience. The younger children do not understand the purpose of commercials, they think it is funny to watch them and important so they know what to buy. Most of the 9- and 11 year olds understand that the companies want to sell their products. Keywords: Children, commercials, attitudes, experience, holistic view, socialization, consumer, development.

The aim of this study is to increase the knowledge and understanding of the early process of socialization and its influence on the choices in life, with the example taken from the agricultural family. The question is considering how the process of socialization within an agricultural family has influenced on the choices in life of four women. A qualitative method with a hermeneutic, phenomenologic perspective is applied and four interviews have been done with women who all grew up in an agricultural family. The results have been analysed through social constructive-, psychodynamic-, attachment- and cognitive theory. The results indicate that socialization is a complex process. The women have early been socialized in the discourse of work with distinct norms and set of values, which seems to follow them in their grown-up life. Not only the discourse but also the early relations within the families seems to have been influenced by the conditions of farming. We are of the opinion that the early relations within the families have influenced on the choices in life of these four women. Also, the commitment to a Free Church communion during the growth has been a strong factor of socialization to these women. Above all, we think that the decision of leaving the Free Church communion has had a great significance to these women, for example in their choice of residential area.

The aim of this study is to describe and examine the characteristics of inclusion of children with disabilities in the kinder garden and primary school in Belarus. The data in this study were collected through interviews with special teachers and staff at the Developing and Rehabilitation center. The interviews were supported by child-observations and a literature study. Staying in boarding schools prevents handicap students from integrating with the society as well as getting social experience. Integrated education demands the combination of two regularities: education of children with normal development and special education of children with psycho-physiological problems. Many research works consider the interconnection between socio-cultural development of the society and the values in upbringing which are prioritized in the society. Socialisation is possible when the child is involved in the processes of the daily life as well as interacting with adults and friends. It is easier for a child to adapt to a social behaviour when he realises what happens around him, understanding the subjective processes which happen inside other people and when the child can use his knowledge and experience on practice. Therefore, socialization is both a process and a result of realisation and active implementation of a social experience by a child. Integration is a systematic stage in the development of special education caused by change in the attitude of the society and state towards individuals with disabilities, admitting their rights for the equal opportunities in different spheres of life including education. Successful implementation of integrative education depends a lot on the level of material, organisational, educational as well as methodological in educational institutions. Moreover, this process depends on socio-psychological factors and moral atmosphere in the society. Practical solution of the problems in integration attracts not only teaching staff in specific institutions, children with different development and their parents but also children and their parents, teachers in normal secondary schools.

Who am I? Who are we? And how are the two entities connected? These are key issues of this study. Socialization and other sense making processes create new social identities. One possible identity is a professional one. Professional identities are discussed as a construction where expectations and experiences of construed images, cultural and professional understandings are key elements. Social identities are fundamentally described as social and individual reflections. The purpose of the study is to extend the comprehension of how professional identities are constructed and to study new professionals navigation through the complex network of images and contrasting pictures that meet them in that process. The professional identity of Swedish police officers is focused. The profession is - by many of the ten informants in this recurrent, in-depth interview study - described as a dream from childhood. The first of four interview-series has been conducted in beginning of police education, the last after nine months work experience. There are two motives that all informants mention for choosing the profession. The first is a wish to care for others and for the society, the second is excitement. Other mentioned motives are the police profession regarded as teamwork with a high community spirit. It is expected to give good opportunities to develop as individuals and is thought to be a practical occupation, described with key words such as handy and flexible. The construed image, how informants believe that others view the profession, is described either as polices as the selected model or as prejudiced and hostile. The mass media is regarded the main intermediary of the second image. By the informants, a good police is regarded as being without prejudices and is presented as male. Male strength is one desirable quality, though the strength preferably can be combined with female softness. The care-giving motive is accentuated as the most important one in the first interviews, but replaced by excitement as the most important one in practice. Some general discourses are discussed. The first three - the social, the recruitment, and the distrust discourse - are discussed as sources of understanding to the frequently discussed notion of the police profession as constituting strong team spirit. Police identity is also presented as unprejudiced, male and young in the sense of engagement and activity degree. All discourses are often challenged in work- experience, from cultural as well as from image perspectives. On a highly generalized level the police identity can be positioned as one with a high degree of community. When the stories are scrutinized clearly disparate patterns between individuals however appear. The differences are expressed either in accentuation or definition of the common labels. Earlier research on the fields of identity reveals some shortages. The individual's role in constructing social identities and the pure locus of identity is overlooked. To reduce that shortage, this study introduces a professional identity model where the individual´s position is connected to the common identity by expectations and experiences of three key identity elements -Culture, Image and the Profession itself.

The subject matter of this dissertation is children’s use and development of emotive expressions. While prior studies have either focused on facial expressions of emotions or on emotions in the social mechanisms of in situ interactions, this thesis opts to merge two traditions by applying an interactional approach to the interpretation of child–child and child–adult encounters. This approach is further supplemented with an interpretational frame stemming from studies on child development, sociology and psychology. In order to depict the multi-leveled process of socialization, a number of sub-areas are investigated such as the emotive expressions per se; how and when these expressions are used in interaction with parents and siblings; the kinds of responses the children get after using an emotive expression; parental acts (verbal or nonverbal) that bear on children’s conduct and their choice of such expressions. Finally, the relation between nonverbal displays and language as expressive means for emotions is analyzed from a developmental perspective. The data consists of video-recordings of five sibling groups in the ages between 1 ½ and 5 ½ who were followed for 2 ½ years in their home environment. In all, 19 recordings (15 h) were transcribed and analyzed. The results from the study lead to several different taxonomies previously not discussed in the pertinent literature: (i) the nonverbal, vocal and verbal emotive expressions used by children; (ii) the different means these expressions were put to in child–parent encounters; (iii) the ways relations to siblings can be seen as creating and shaping certain emotive processes. Furthermore, this work demonstrates that parental responses are of vital importance for the outcome of specific child expressions. As parents reprimand, comfort, praise and mediate in their interaction with their children, they create paths later used by the child as she practices and acquires her own expressive means for handling emotions in interactional contexts. Finally, a developmental frame of language and nonverbal acts is elaborated and suggested as a tool for discovering the paths of linguistic and emotional socialization. / För att köpa boken skicka en beställning till exp@ling.su.se/ To order the book send an e-mail to exp@ling.su.se