Factors associated with attendance at sporting events has been well documented in recent literature. Numerous studies have been conducted in college and professional sports, yet little work to date has examined factors associated with attendance in the minor leagues. Very few studies have specifically investigated special game day promotions at the minor league level. Based on the absence of some of the potential drawing factors associated with college and professional sports, these promotional activities at the minor league level become of greater interest. Specifically, game day promotions utilized in minor league hockey were of interest in the current study. The purpose of this study was to investigate factors associated with attendance in the East Coast Hockey League (ECHL) in the 2001-2002 season and specifically the game day promotions and their affect on attendance. Data was collected using the feedback from a survey of fourteen marketing personnel of ECHL franchises during the summer of 2002. The survey was adapted from a previous questionnaire (Branvold & Bowers, 1992) utilized to assess factors related to attendance. Other questions were added to the Branvold and Bowers tool in order to address other factors of interest. Results indicated that several factors including promotions were correlated with attendance. Those factors contributed more than 45% of the variance in predicting attendance. Specific promotions such as "Puck Night", "Scouts Night" and "Fan Appreciation Night" were identified as the most successful in increasing attendance. Weekend promotions were more related to an increase in attendance than weekday promotions and children were the most popular target group. Attendance based on promotional games versus non-promotional games varied greatly among the fourteen teams of interest. The findings are similar to previous research on promotions and attendance. Promotions have been associated with a discernible increase in attendance for most markets. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Recreation Management, Sport Management and Physical Education In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2003. / Date of Defense: February 28, 2003. / Social-Cultural Influences and Attendance / Includes bibliographical references. / Brenda Pitts, Professor Directing Dissertation; Akihito Kamata, Outside Committee Member; Annie. Clement, Committee Member; Aubrey Kent, Committee Member.

This study analyzed Major League Baseball player performance using sabermetric measurements of offensive productivity in order to determine how player production was impacted as a result of free agency. The theoretical framework for this research is based on two competing theories of social and organizational behavior: J. S. Adams' Equity Theory and Victor Vroom's Expectancy Theory. Both equity theory and expectancy theory were developed to predict worker performance under conditions of inequity in terms of under-reward and over-reward. In conjunction with both theories, this study assumed the following: (1) that players in the final year of their contracts, just prior to becoming eligible for free agency, perceived inequitable conditions of under-reward, and (2) that players who signed a new multi-year free agent contract perceived inequitable conditions of over-reward in the first year of a new contract. Sabermetric measurements, OPS, Runs Created, and Win Shares, were utilized to assess performance improvements or decrements for players in each of the following three years: (1) pre-option year- the year prior to a player becoming a free agent, (2) option year- the last year of a player's contract, and (3) post-option year- the first year of a player's new contract. Subjects consisted of Major League Baseball free-agents who signed multi-year contracts of at least two years or more with a their current team or another major league franchise between the years of 1976 and 2003 (n = 234). In order to qualify for inclusion, players must have had a minimum of 250 at-bats in each of the three individual years being examined: pre-option year, option year, and post-option year. Covariates, age and team winning percentage, were incorporated into this study in an attempt to control for specific factors thought to impact individual player performance. Results of multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) revealed that free agency had a significant impact on each of the three performance measures. Follow-up univariate analyses of variance (ANOVA) indicated that player performance significantly declined for each of the dependent variables following free agency. When controlling for age, multivariate analyses of covariance (MANCOVA) revealed no significant effects with regards to the impact of free agency on player performance. When controlling for team winning percentage, however, multivariate and univariate analyses indicated that post-option year team winning percentage significantly affected the impact of free agency on player productivity. For each of the dependent variables, significant findings were consistent with expectancy theory predictions. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2006. / Date of Defense: March 16, 2006. / Baseball, Free Agency, Sabermetrics, Performance / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeff James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Joseph Travis, Outside Committee Member; Charles Imwold, Committee Member; Michael Mondello, Committee Member.

When attending or watching sporting events, amateur or professional, people are exposed to a variety of advertising. People form attitudes toward advertising that influence their decision making processes to purchase a particular advertiser's product. The current study examines a new construct, attitude toward advertising through sport, derived from Pollay and Mittal's (1993) model of attitude toward advertising in general. Through an exploratory investigation a scale to measure attitude toward advertising through sport is tested. The preliminary results from several stages provide support for the conceptualization and measurement of the belief dimensions proposed to influence attitudes toward advertising through sport. The assessments of the structural equation model reveal that respondents' perceived beliefs of product information and hedonism/pleasure about advertising through sport play significant roles in accounting for their overall attitude toward advertising through sport. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2006. / Date of Defense: February 27, 2006. / Advertising through Sport, Attitude, Belief, Scale Development / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Charles F. Hofacker, Outside Committee Member; R. Aubrey W. Kent, Committee Member; Michael J. Mondello, Committee Member.

While much of the sponsorship literature has focused on analyzing the effects of sponsorship on consumers (e.g., Gwinner, 1997; Madrigal, 2001; Rajaretnam, 1994), research on the internal effects of sponsorship on a sponsor company's workforce has been rare (Grimes & Meenaghan, 1998; Hickman, Lawrence, & Ward, 2005). At the same time, both, sponsorship and internal marketing researchers have recommended further investigation of the use of external marketing tools such as sponsorship for internal marketing purposes (Cornwell & Maignan, 1995; Dolphin, 2003; Lings & Greenley, 2005). The purpose of this study was to assess how sponsorship as a marketing communications tool affects employees' perceptions of an organization's corporate image, their person-organization fit, and organizational identification. Data were collected from employees of a quick service restaurant chain (N=231). After establishing the reliability and validity of the measurement instrument, multiple regression analysis was used to determine the relationship between four different sponsorship factors and the outcome variables. Sponsor-property fit perceptions as well as the perceived sponsor goodwill were most influential on all the outcome factors, while a personal interest in the sport by employees appeared to foster organizational identification. Overall, the study results suggested that attitudes towards sponsorship activities rub off on employees in a similar way as they do on consumers, and supported its use as a potential internal marketing tool. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport and Recreation Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Summer Semester, 2008. / Date of Defense: April 22, 2008. / Sponsorship, Marketing, Strategic Management, Sport sponsorship, Internal Marketing, Marketing Communications / Includes bibliographical references. / Aubrey Kent, Professor Directing Dissertation; Joe Cronin, Outside Committee Member; Jeffrey James, Committee Member; Michael Mondello, Committee Member.

Marketing researchers have primarily studied radical and incremental product innovations based on technological development from the firm's perspective. The inescapable observation is that product innovation research has developed with an emphasis on tangible products (i.e., goods) and little empirical effort to investigate the innovativeness of intangible products (i.e., services, experiences, and events) from the customer's perspective. Although recent discussions in the marketing literature highlight the importance of studying service and experience innovations, most existing models are still conceptual. This dissertation is one of the first attempts to develop a model of intangible event innovativeness from the consumer's perspective and for relating event innovativeness to customer retention. From a pragmatic perspective, the conceptual model of event innovativeness is developed based on a review of the relevant literature and an examination of data collected from two focus groups. Two quantitative research studies (n = 297, n = 333) validate the proposed conceptualization of event innovativeness and examine the hypothesized relationships impacting consumer behavioral intentions through innovative event experiences. In the early stages of the study, an exploratory maximum likelihood factor analysis with an oblique rotation was employed. From the factor analysis, six dimensions emerged and were interpreted as (1) player performance, (2) respectful access, (3) self-service technology, (4) aesthetic environment, (5) brand community, and (6) loyalty program. The number of dimensions in the original model was reduced from eight to six; consumers did not seem to distinguish between skill performance and thrill performance and between social environment and brand community. The second data set was collected from spectators at a college football game in order to validate the idea of event innovativeness. A confirmatory maximum likelihood factor analysis found that two dimensions (player performance and aesthetic environment) had positive effects on overall innovativeness in the context of spectator sports. Furthermore, this study extended previous research by examining the link between event innovativeness and customer retention. Including two attitudinal constructs (consumer satisfaction and brand equity) as mediators, the results indicate that innovative event experiences lead not only to increased consumer satisfaction in the affective domain, but also to enhanced brand equity in the cognitive domain, and eventually to increased behavioral intentions (i.e., repeat purchase, word-of-mouth, and share of wallet). The current study represents an initial effort to provide managers with more holistic information pertaining to the factors engaging consumers through innovative event experiences. The ideas merit further research with respect to formulating an explanation of what factors contribute most to engaging consumers through innovative event experiences. The proposed model and recommendations for future research provide numerous opportunities to continue advancing our knowledge of customer retention through innovation. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport and Recreation Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2009. / Date of Defense: March 3, 2009. / Event Marketing, Sport Marketing, Product Innovation, Service Innovation, Experience Innovation / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Akihito Kamata, Outside Committee Member; J. Joseph Cronin Jr., Committee Member; Michael J. Mondello, Committee Member.

Creating and developing an international sport federation is an early step before govern-ing a sport on a global scale. Then the organization must seek International Olympic Committee recognition to become the legitimate international federation rather than being self-proclaimed. Next the international federation lobbies to have its sport placed on the Olympic Games competi-tion program. In just two years, the International Triathlon Union went from being a self-proclaimed world governing body for the sport in 1989 to being recognized officially as such from the IOC. Three years later the sport was placed on the competition program for the 2000 Sydney Summer Olympic Games. No sport has accomplished so much in such a short period of time. Using Institutional Theory as the framework, this study looked at identifying the various isomorphic influences exerted upon the International Triathlon Union as the organization moved towards its Olympic goal. While institutional theory describes why organizations move towards homogeneity, typically by three traditional isomorphisms, this study also looked at the variables of leadership and culture to see if they might also influence the direction of this international fed-eration. Additionally, interaction between all the isomorphic influences and variables was also considered. Using a qualitative methodology incorporating heuristic inquiry and a construction-ist philosophy, a variety of pressures, both internal and external, were exerted on the newly formed international federation. Coercive isomorphism, provided by International Olympic Committee, was the strongest influence on the organization's creation and development. However, mimetic and normative isomorphic influences were also present indicating that a hierarchy and interaction exists among and between the three isomorphisms in this case study. Additionally, leadership and cultural in-fluences also guided how ITU was created and developed. While Institutional Theory has fo-cused on macro elements regarding an organization's move towards homogeneity, there is also evidence that micro elements provide similar sway. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Spring Semester 2006. / Date of Defense: March 29, 2006. / Olympics, Triathlon, Institutional Theory, Isomorphism / Includes bibliographical references. / Aubrey Kent, Professor Directing Dissertation; Jeff Milligan, Outside Committee Member; King Beach, Committee Member; Jeffrey James, Committee Member; Cecile Reynaud, Committee Member.

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between coaches' burnout, coaches' behaviors, and levels of burnout and satisfaction experienced by college athletes. The secondary purposes were to examine how coaches' levels of burnout were related to perceived coaching behavior, and to examine the link between athletes' levels of burnout and satisfaction. Forty two male and female coaches employed at the 8 public universities in Jordan, and 413 male and female college athletes participated in this study. The participants completed translated version of the Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS; Chelladurai & Saleh, 1980), Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ; Raedeke & Smith, 2001), Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire (ASQ; Riemer & Chelladurai, 1998), and Maslach Burnout Inventory-Educators Survey (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients, and stepwise regression. The results of this study suggest that there is a significant relationship between coaches' leadership behaviors and burnout. It was discovered that personal accomplishment and emotional exhaustion to be significant predictors of the coaches' leadership behaviors. Significant relationships were found between perceived coaching behaviors and athletes' outcomes. Athletes who perceived their coaches as providing more training and instruction, social support, feedback, and exhibiting more democratic behavior and less autocratic behavior were more satisfied and less burned out. In addition, significant negative relationships were found between athletes' satisfaction and athletes' burnout. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2003. / Date of Defense: November 10, 2003. / Jordan, Satisfaction, Coaching behavior, Burnout, College athlete / Includes bibliographical references. / Aubrey Kent, Professor Directing Dissertation; Gershon Tenenbaum, Outside Committee Member; E. Newton Jackson, Committee Member; Jerome Quarterman, Committee Member.

The primary purpose of this study was to develop a valid and reliable instrument to assess sport fan motivation. Also, the new measure was employed to examine the relationship between sport fan motivation and ethnic identity. One hundred sixty nine college students from two southeastern institutions participated in this study. Data were analyzed using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, Bivariate correlation, t test, ANOVA, and descriptive statistics. The Fan Motivation Scale (FMS), developed in this study, consisted of six components with 22 items. The number of items under every component range from 5 to 2 items (quality of the game 4 items, escape 5 items, boredom avoidance 5 items, social 3 items, entertainment 3 items, and sport atmosphere 2 items). In addition, two hypotheses were tested in the current study. The first hypothesis was that ethnic identity is positively related to sport fan motivation. The second hypothesis assumed that there was a difference between African Americans and European Americans in their ethnic identity. The results revealed the FMS is a reliable measure with an overall alpha score of 0.90. Significant differences were found between participants in the total FMS and some of the subscales based on gender and ethnicity. However, the outcomes of the samples examined in this study do not support the first hypothesis. Therefore, no significant relationship was found between sport fan motivation and ethnic identity. Regarding the second hypothesis, a significant difference was found between African Americans and European Americans in their ethnic identity. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2004. / Date of Defense: October 21, 2004. / Sport fan motivation, ethnic identity / Includes bibliographical references. / E. Newton Jackson, Jr., Professor Directing Dissertation; Akihito Kamata, Outside Committee Member; Jerome Quarterman, Committee Member; Mounir Ragheb, Committee Member.

The purpose of this study was twofold: (1) to measure the degree to which Florida High School athletic directors utilize risk management within their athletic program and (2) to determine whether selected demographic factors (i. e. undergraduate major, years of experience as Athletic Director, level of education, etc.) have an effect on the performance levels of these risk management behaviors. A 42-item survey was used to collect data related to specific risk management behaviors and 12 demographic items. Descriptive statistics were calculated for each factor on the demographic section of the survey, the composite scores for each of the individual items on the survey, for all of the items combined (grand mean), and for the composite scores of each conceptual area (i.e. medical concerns, facilities, etc.). A one-way ANOVA was then used to test for significance among the independent variables (selected demographic factors) and dependent variables (risk management behavior scores of the (1) grand mean, (2) conceptual area means, and (3) individual item means). Results of the study suggest that (1) the risk management behaviors being performed within Florida High School athletic departments are being performed on a rather consistent basis and that (2) the two primary factors that influenced FHSAA athletic director's performance of risk management behaviors were current employment status and current coaching status. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Summer Semester, 2004. / Date of Defense: April 22, 2004. / Sports, Liability, Tort, Law, Sports Law, Negligence, Athletics, Sport, NCAA, NAIA / Includes bibliographical references. / Annie Clement, Professor Directing Dissertation; Tonya Toole, Outside Committee Member; E. Newton Jackson, Jr., Committee Member; B. Cecile Reynaud, Committee Member.

The dissertation had two major research purposes. The first purpose was to explore what values may be associated with spectator sports. This purpose was completed by using qualitative inquiry and conducting a review of literature. The second purpose was to examine the relationships between personal values and sport spectator behavior. Sport spectator behavior included spectator sport consumption and sport spectator experiences. This purpose was completed by administering a questionnaire and conducting statistical analyses (for example, descriptive analyses, MANOVA, cluster analyses, stepwise multiple regression, and confirmatory regression analyses). In general, this dissertation adopted a mixed research method design including qualitative and quantitative methods. A qualitative study was conducted to examine values individuals associate with spectator sports. Prior studies of values in sport settings have been primarily conceptual discussions (e.g., Duncan, 1983; Wann, Melnick, Russell, & Pease, 2001) and have focused on participation rather than spectatorship (e.g., Lee, Whitehead, & Balchin, 2000; Simmons & Dickinson, 1986; Wankel & Berger, 1990). Research with spectator sports has investigated fan motivations for attending sports rather than general values associated with spectator sports (e.g., Milne, & McDonald, 1999; Trail, & James, 2001). The current study is an initial step examining the values individuals associate with spectator sports. The study utilized interviews and focus groups and had four progressive phases for triangulation, transferability and constant comparative assessment. The finding suggested ten value types associated with spectator sports: Enjoyment, Sociability, Identity, Status, Moral, Spirituality, Epistemic, Aesthetics, Ritual, No or negative values. Using existing value measures (Kahle, 1983; Maslow, 1970; Rokeach, 1973; Schwartz, 1992, 1996), a pilot survey was conducted to specify 28 individual values which were considered more relevant to spectator sports. A main study was then conducted by using a questionnaire with 28 value measures, 6 modes of spectator sport consumption and 10 experience items. The first group of hypotheses examined whether personal values predicted spectator sport consumption. The results showed significant results, but the direction of associations varied. Sixteen personal values had positive associations with spectator sport consumption; 7 had negative associations with spectator sport consumption; 5 had mixed results. The second group of hypotheses examined whether personal values predicted expected sport spectator experiences. Twenty personal values supported the hypotheses; five values had the results opposite to the hypotheses; two values had mixed results; the value, DEVOUT did not have significant result. The results suggested directions for revision of the ten-value type framework derived from the qualitative inquiry. The results also indicated that the corresponding relationships between some of the individual values and value types associated with spectator sports require further clarification. Different from the results of prior research in fan motivations, the results of this dissertation show that it is likely that people might experience something relevant to some values through spectator sport consumption but did not actively associate the values with spectator sports. In other words, people might be motivated to consume spectator sports in some occasions, but this did not mean that the motivation is a constant value associated with spectator sports. Future research is required to provide more evidence to support this conjecture. The results provide implications for theory in sport consumer behavior to explain spectator sport behavior more thoroughly. The results also provide useful information for sport marketers, sponsors, and policy makers to design their promotion activities, proposals, and policies by using the values as themes. Future research should examine how different sports and cultures influence the associations between personal values and spectator sports. Value-based attitudes might be developed for each value type to help clarify the relationships among values, motives, and attitudes toward spectator sports. The development of attitudes can also enhance the prediction effects of values on spectator sport consumption. By conducting spectator sport value research, it is hoped that attributes of spectator sports can be identified or created to help sport marketers design sporting events to meet the desires of broad potential consumers. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2007. / Date of Defense: August 31, 2007. / Spectator Sports, Value Types, Sport Spectator Behavior, Sport Spectator Experiences, Spectator Sport Consumption, Personal Values / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Bruce T. Grindal, Outside Committee Member; Felipe Korzenny, Committee Member; Leisa R. Flynn, Committee Member; Aubrey Kent, Committee Member.