In the spring, apple orchards are susceptible to freeze damage. Various approaches to orchard protection have been used in the past. Overhead sprinkling for bloom delay has been effective in extending to a later period in the spring the freeze hardiness of apple buds. Thus, protection against a late spring freeze is obtained. Previous research has not been conducted to determine optimum sprinkling times in the spring, the most effective threshold temperature, the amount of water needed to provide adequate bud protection, and the daily length of sprinkling time. A 2-year investigation was conducted with the objective of obtaining basic information to help in system design and the operational aspects of overhead sprinkling. The experiment was designed to determine the effectiveness of a system sprinkling beginning at the end of rest and at Celsius growing degree hour accumulations relating to stages bud development. The evaluation of limited and unlimited water use and the relation to bloom delay was obtained. The two sprinkler types studied were umbrella and impact. On the umbrella sprinklers, four cycling times (1/2, 1/3, 1/4, and 1/6 time) and three threshold temperatures (7, 10, and 13 C) were tested. On the impact sprinkler, three nozzle sizes (4.0, 3.6, and 2.8 mm) were evaluated. The investigation answered many questions, the most important of which were: (1) when only limited bloom delay is needed, more freeze protection can be obtained by sprinkling in the early spring than in the late spring; (2) bloom delay can be regulated by terminating sprinkling at different stages of bud development; (3) to obtain maximum delay, sprinkling should begin at the end of rest and a low threshold temperature for sprinkling should be used for sprinkler initiation; (4) when limited delay is required, greater efficiency of water use can be obtained by lowering the threshold temperature and lowering the application rate.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird ein Simulationsmodell zur Bestimmung der Beregnungsmenge vorgestellt, um das Absinken der Temperatur unter 0°C eines mit einer Plastikfolie abgedeckten Bodens möglichst zu verhindern. Es wurden numerische Berechnungen für den nackten Boden und für den mit Folie abgedeckten Boden mit und ohne gleichzeitiger Frostschutzberegnung durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen z.B., daß die Bodenoberflächentemperatur bei einer Beregnung von nur 75% der Sollvorgabe relativ stark absinkt. Dieses liegt an der relativ großen Gefrierwärme von Wasser. Ein nur mit Folie abgedeckter Boden schützt nur in den wenigsten Fällen vor Bodenfrost. Die Simulationsergebnisse stimmen gut mit den gemessenen überein. / A model to determine the minimum amount of water required to hold the soil temperature above 0°C under a plastic mulch is presented. Numerical experiments with and without consideration of the mulch foil, with and without sprinkling of the mulch foil were performed. The results substantiate that sprinkling par example at 75% of the usual used rate of water is sufficient to avoid that the soil temperature falls below 0°C because of the relative big freezing energy of water and that mulching alone cannot prevent the soil temperature from decreasing below that value. The model results are in good agreement with observations.

Indoor air contaminants such as dust and gases are present in concentrations that may be hazardous to worker health in poultry production. Poultry dust may contain inflammatory agents (e.g., endotoxin) and inhalation exposure has been associated with pulmonary symptoms. The current control practice to reduce worker exposure to poultry dust is the use of respiratory protection (e.g., filtering face-piece respirators). Limited research has been conducted to evaluate engineering controls to reduce dust concentrations in broiler chicken production. Therefore, the purpose of this research was to evaluate the effectiveness of a water sprinkling system to reduce inhalable dust and ammonia concentrations in a broiler chicken house. Inhalable dust and ammonia concentrations were measured daily for the production cycle of a flock of broiler chickens (63 days). Inhalable dust was measured gravimetrically using an inhalable sampler and ammonia was measured by a direct reading sensor. Sampling was performed on a stationary mannequin inside two broiler chicken houses. One house used a sprinkler cooling system to deliver a water mist throughout the house and the second house was an untreated control. The sprinkler system activated 5 days after chicken placement and continued through day 63 of the broiler chicken production cycle. The following sprinkler activation program was used each hour from 6am to 10pm: days 5 – 9 five seconds, days 10 – 14 ten seconds, and days 15-63 for fifteen seconds. Geometric mean (GM) inhalable dust concentrations collected in the treatment house (5.2 mg/m3) were lower than those found in the control house (6.0 mg/m3). The GM ammonia concentration within the treatment house was higher at 10.6 ppm (GSD: 1.80), compared to the control house (GM 9.51 ppm; GSD: 1.77). However, the observed differences were not statistically significant (p = 0.33 and p = 0.34, respectively). Concentrations of inhalable dust were reduced by 11β when using the water sprinkling system, however the reduction was not statistically significant. The observed reduction in dust concentration was not sufficient to eliminate the need for respiratory protection.

Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / Dois experimentos foram realizados com o abacaxizeiro. Um experimento, em fase de aclimatização, avaliou o desempenho de cultivares de abacaxizeiro e o efeito de substratos com diferentes proporções e fontes de material orgânico em sua composição. O outro experimento, em fase de campo, estudou o efeito da adubação potássica e lâminas de irrigação sobre o crescimento vegetativo e nutrição mineral do abacaxizeiro Vitória‟, em diferentes épocas de amostragem. Na produção de mudas, avaliou-se o desempenho vegetativo de cultivares de abacaxizeiro e a eficiência de substratos de natureza orgânica, aos 210 dias de aclimatização. O delineamento experimental foi em blocos inteiramente casualizados, disposto em esquema fatorial 3×5, sendo três cultivares de abacaxizeiro (Pérola, Vitória e Imperial) e cinco substratos [ORG: Organoamazon, composto orgânico comercial; SP: Substrato Padrão, composto por solo + areia, na proporção 1:1 (v/v); SP+E+C: composto por SP + esterco de carneiro + casca de arroz carbonizada (2:1:1 v/v); SP+E: composto por SP + E (3:1 v/v); SP+C: composto por SP + C (3:1v/v)]. Baseado na produção de massa seca das plantas e considerando o substrato de melhor desempenho, houve superioridade da cultivar Pérola em relação a Vitória‟e ambas foram superiores a Imperial‟. O ORG proporcionou a parte aérea das plantas, incrementos superiores a 260% e incrementos superiores a 115% para densidade de raízes, em relação ao grupo de substratos com solo. No experimento de campo, o delineamento experimental foi em blocos inteiramente casualizados, arranjados em parcelas sub-subdivididas. As parcelas corresponderam às doses de potássio (0, 10, 20 e 30 g de K2O planta-1), as subparcelas corresponderam às lâminas de irrigação (L1 = 134,9; L2 = 267,5; L3 = 446,8; L4 = 558,3; e L5 = 655,2 mm), enaquanto as sub-subparcelas foram compostas pelos períodos de amostragem (120, 195, 270 e 345 dias após o plantio DAP). Os efeitos das doses de K2O (K) e das lâminas de irrigação (L) independeram entre si, mas dependeram das épocas de amostragem (E) para as variáveis: número de folhas (NF), o diâmetro do caule (DC), a altura de planta (AP) e a massa seca de raízes (MSR). Já, em relação à área foliar (AF) e massa fresca (MF) e seca (MS) das folhas houve interação significativa entre K×L×E. Baseado no desenvolvimento vegetativo das plantas, a área foliar (11.133 cm2) e a massa fresca (1.450 g planta-1) e seca das folhas (180 g planta-1), recomenda-se para o cultivo do abacaxizeiro Vitória‟ em Latossolo Amarelo nas savanas, dose de 16,9 g planta-1 de K2O e 8 suplementação hídrica de 558,7 mm, via irrigação por aspersão convencional. Os teores foliares de K e P não sofreram alterações com as doses de K2O, mas houve redução significativa na lâmina de irrigação correspondente a 134,9 mm. Os teores foliares de N responderam a aplicação de K2O no solo, de forma quadrática, aos 120 DAP, mas apresentaram redução linear a partir de 270 DAP. A irrigação L5 reduziu os teores foliares de N. Os teores foliares de Ca e Mg foram reduzidos significativamente com as doses de K2O, aos 345 DAP. As extrações de nutrientes pela planta foram afetadas pela interação K×L×E, acompanhando o aporte de biomassa da parte aérea e a idade fisiológica da planta.

In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird ein Simulationsmodell zur Bestimmung der Beregnungsmenge vorgestellt, um das Absinken der Temperatur unter 0°C eines mit einer Plastikfolie abgedeckten Bodens möglichst zu verhindern. Es wurden numerische Berechnungen für den nackten Boden und für den mit Folie abgedeckten Boden mit und ohne gleichzeitiger Frostschutzberegnung durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse zeigen z.B., daß die Bodenoberflächentemperatur bei einer Beregnung von nur 75% der Sollvorgabe relativ stark absinkt. Dieses liegt an der relativ großen Gefrierwärme von Wasser. Ein nur mit Folie abgedeckter Boden schützt nur in den wenigsten Fällen vor Bodenfrost. Die Simulationsergebnisse stimmen gut mit den gemessenen überein. / A model to determine the minimum amount of water required to hold the soil temperature above 0°C under a plastic mulch is presented. Numerical experiments with and without consideration of the mulch foil, with and without sprinkling of the mulch foil were performed. The results substantiate that sprinkling par example at 75% of the usual used rate of water is sufficient to avoid that the soil temperature falls below 0°C because of the relative big freezing energy of water and that mulching alone cannot prevent the soil temperature from decreasing below that value. The model results are in good agreement with observations.

The major purpose of this study is to analyze the economic feasibility of bloom delay by sprinkling as a means of protecting delicious apples from frost. The framework of this study is based on decision making theory under uncertainty. It demonstrates the usefulness of the Bayesian approach to determine optimum action to take in face of uncertain climatic conditions. The economic analysis was conducted for Farmington, Utah, where significant relationships were found between the end of winter rest (end of chill-unit accumulation) and time of full bloom of red delicious apples. A posteriori probabilities for the state of nature were determined using accumulated data of end of winter rest of the apple trees. Applying the Bayesian approach, optimal strategies were determined by use of a posteriori probabilities and knowledge of time of end of winter rest. It was concluded from the analysis that the installation of solid set sprinklers and use of sprinkling to delay bloom is an effective means of frost protection. Sprinkling provides two methods of freeze protection. Bud development can be delayed increasing the hardiness of the bud to colder temperatures. Sprinkling can also be used during periods of freezing temperatures to protect the buds from freezing. It was found that a combination of protection by delay and by sprinkling for freeze protection would result in increased net returns over any other alternative. An important finding of this study is that with the dual protection afforded by sprinkling, extended amounts of delay are not necessary to obtain the desired results.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-23T14:37:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Caio Louzada Martins.pdf: 2202236 bytes, checksum: 6bb5041e3826f27ec3ede6cbe3e97fdc (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-02-26 / No sul do Estado do Espírito Santo, a irrigação vem se consolidando como importante alternativa de modernização e crescimento da cafeicultura. Na região são utilizados os sistemas de irrigação: gotejamento, microaspersão, aspersão convencional móvel e fixa. Porém, muitos sistemas de irrigação são instalados sem projetos elaborados por profissionais capacitados, utilizando equipamentos com deficiências de instalação e o manejo da irrigação sem critério técnico, faltando informações detalhadas da situação dos sistemas de irrigação instalados. Diante do exposto, objetivou-se, com a realização deste trabalho, avaliar tecnicamente os sistemas de irrigação utilizados na cafeicultura de montanha da região. O trabalho foi dividido em duas etapas: na primeira, avaliou-se o desempenho dos sistemas de irrigação por aspersão convencional em áreas acidentadas; e na segunda etapa, avaliou-se o desempenho de sistemas de irrigação localizada. Estas avaliações foram realizadas por meio do levantamento dos principais parâmetros de eficiência relacionados à condução, distribuição, aplicação e manejo da irrigação em cada projeto avaliado. Com base nos resultados obtidos, concluiu-se que os sistemas avaliados apresentam indicadores de uniformidade inferiores aos recomendáveis. A variação da pressão de operação e vazão nos sistemas de aspersão fixa é acima do limite aceitável. A avaliação do manejo dos sistemas demonstra descontrole em relação ao uso da água / In the southern state of Espírito Santo, irrigation has been consolidated as an important alternative to modernization and growth of coffee. In the region are used irrigation systems: drip irrigation, sprayer, conventional sprinkling irrigation mobile and fixed. However, many irrigation systems are installed without projects designed by trained professionals, disabled equipment installation and irrigation management without technical criteria, lacking detailed information on the situation of irrigation systems installed. Given the above, the aim of this work was technically evaluate irrigation systems used in coffee mountain region. The work was divided into two phases: first, it evaluated the performance of irrigation by sprinkler irrigation conventional in hilly areas, and second step, it evaluated the performance of localized irrigation systems. These evaluations were conducted through survey of the main efficiency parameters related to the conducting, switching, application and management of the irrigation in each project assessed. Based on these results, it was concluded that the systems evaluated show indicators of uniformity lower than recommended. Variations in operating pressure and flow in fixed sprinkler systems is above the acceptable limit. The evaluation of management systems demonstrates unmanageability in relation to water use

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / During the second harvest in the central region of Rio Grande do Sul, pluvial precipitations are usually irregularly distributed along the bean production cycle. This irregular distribution of rains during the bean cultivation can affect its productive potential. Complementary irrigation can be adopted in order to avoid drought stress. In current agriculture, irrigation systems have been increasingly used to supply crops and promote better conditions for cultivation, prompting an increase in productivity. The localized irrigation is one of these systems which are usually applied in perennial cultures and/or small areas. It has been used as a resource for diminishing energy consumption and for prompting more efficacy in water consumption. The bean culture has a high market price and is very susceptible to drought stress. These factors contribute for its cultivation in fields with the use of irrigation systems. Besides endeavoring to offer better parameters for irrigators, this work aims at determining the necessity of complementary irrigation and verifying the relation between localized irrigation systems and water availability by means of different critical water levels applied in complementary irrigation in bean crops. The variety used was the BRS Valente, seeded outof- season in Santa Maria, central region of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil. The micro-sprinkling and subsurface dripping irrigation systems were used to sustain the highest complementary irrigation depths in 20, 40 and 60 mm of maximum evapotranspiration accumulated and a control treatment without irrigation. The reference vapotranspiration was measured by means of a meteorological station installed at UFSM and its estimative was calculated by the Penman-Monteith equation. There were differences between the treatments in the complementary irrigation levels regarding some production factors and the different systems of irrigation (micro-sprinkling and subsurface dripping irrigation systems). / As precipitações pluviais são normalmente mal distribuídas ao longo do ciclo produtivo do feijoeiro durante a segunda safra para a região central do Rio Grande do Sul, podendo afetar o seu potencial produtivo. A irrigação complementar torna-se uma ferramenta a ser adotada para que o feijoeiro não seja afetado pela deficiência hídrica. Para obter maiores garantias de colheita, os sistemas de irrigação são cada vez mais utilizados para suprir as necessidades hídricas das culturas, proporcionando melhores condições de cultivo e maior produtividade. A irrigação localizada é uma das alternativas utilizadas, mas normalmente para culturas perenes e/ou pequenas áreas. A irrigação localizada está sendo utilizada por proporcionar menor consumo energético e melhor eficiência na aplicação da água, desta forma, proporcionando melhor uso de um recurso cada vez mais escasso. O feijão tem valor de mercado elevado, o que contribui para o seu plantio em áreas com sistemas de irrigação e também por ser uma planta muito suscetível à deficiência hídrica. Buscando oferecer melhores parâmetros para os irrigantes, o presente trabalho teve como objetivos determinar a necessidade de irrigação complementar, verificar a relação entre sistemas de irrigação localizada e disponibilidade hídrica através de diferenciadas lâminas críticas de irrigação complementar para o feijoeiro. Foi utilizada a variedade BRS Valente semeada na safrinha na cidade de Santa Maria na depressão central do Rio Grande do Sul. Os sistemas de irrigação por gotejamento e micro-aspersão foram utilizados para manter as lâminas críticas de irrigação complementar nos níveis máximos de 20, 40 e 60 mm de evapotranspiração máxima acumulada e um tratamento testemunha que não recebeu irrigação. A evapotranspiração de referência foi estimada a partir dos dados da estação meteorológica instalada na UFSM com a equação de Penman-Monteith. Foi verificada diferença entre os tratamentos nas lâminas de irrigação complementar para alguns fatores de produção e entre os sistemas de irrigação localizada por gotejamento e micro-aspersão.

För nutida läsare av Nya Testamentet kan referenser till ”Kristi blod” upplevas som märkliga och rentav obehagliga – de flesta människor idag associerar ju blod till något negativt. I denna uppsats studeras två passager i Första Petrusbrevet som innehåller just motivet ”Kristi blod” – detta utanför en nattvardskontext. Utifrån den svenska översättningen och sekler av teologiska läror är det lätt att tänka att motivet anspelar på en försoningstanke kring rening och frigörande från synd. Men stämmer det verkligen? Uppsatsförfattaren utforskar både innebörden av ”Kristi blod” i dessa passager samt vilken funktion de har i Första Petrusbrevet som helhet. Analysen görs genom en historisk-kritisk metod inriktad på ordstudium utifrån den grekiska grundtexten, intertextualitet och metaforik. Bland annat kan författaren visa att ”Kristi blod” utgör en del av en argumentation som handlar om att adressaterna ska härda ut i den sociala utsatthet de upplever som kristna. Genom att följa Kristus i hans lidande kommer de även få del i hans förhärligande och uppståndelse. Förutom de kända referenserna i Första Petrusbrevet till bl.a. Jes 53 och Ps 34 kan författaren här även visa på en intertextualitet med Ps 89. Denna ger ytterligare en dimension av temat ”Herrens lidande tjänare” som finns i brevet samt förstärker argumentationen om en Kristus-identifikation för adressaterna. / For modern New Testament readers, references to “the blood of Christ” can be perceived as strange and even unpleasant, since most people today associate blood with something negative. In this bachelor’s thesis, two passages in the 1 Peter are studied, which contain the motif of "the blood of Christ" - this outside a communion context. Based on the Swedish Bible translation and centuries of theological teachings, it is easy to think that the motif alludes to atonement theory and an idea of ​​purification and liberation from sin. But is this really the matter? The author here explores both the meaning of "the blood of Christ" in these passages and what function they have in 1 Peter as a whole. The analysis is made through a historical-critical method focused on word study based on the Greek text, intertextuality and the many metaphors in the letter.  Among other things, the author can show that "the blood of Christ" is part of an argumentation that is about helping the addressees to endure the social vulnerability they experience as Christians in the Greek-Roman society. By following Christ in his suffering, they will also be able to take part in his glorification and resurrection. In addition to the well-known references in 1 Peter to e.g. Isaiah 53 and Psalm 34, the author can also point to an intertextuality with Psalm 89. This deepens the theme of "The Lord's suffering servant" in the letter and strengthens the idea of identification in Christ for the addressees.