The aim of this investigation was to review the position of the formal and formative education of the blind in the RSA, to pay particular attention to crucial problems and, by means of a scientifically accountable interpretation and evaluation, to arrive at meaningful recommendations in respect of a system of education for blind pupils. As regards the situation in the RSA, various methods were employed to obtain information. Visits were paid to schools, questionnaires completed by school principals and members of the staff, and interviews conducted with experts in various fields. Questionnaires were also sent to schools for the blind in certain overseas countries and an intensive literature study was undertaken. Being blind implies particular limitations in comparison with the seeing person. The blind person's exploration of his world is hampered; he is deprived, to a certain extent, of his freedom as a person and limitations are imposed on his potential of self-determination; his fellow-man may deny his human dignity; his opportunities and possibilities for self-actualization are restricted, and his future perspective is blurred. Certain educational directives arise from these implications of being blind. These include the following: The necessity of differentiated formal and formative education; the preparation of the blind child for the reality of life among the seeing, but also acknowledgement of the blind person's potential and limitations; the advancement of the mobility of the blind; the necessity of the effective use of his remaining senses, and aid to the blind child in respect of social integration, use of leisure, orientation with regard to the opposite sex, and his creative self-realization. The NG Kerk has made a particular contribution towards the establishment of education for the blind in the RSA. Education for the blind has, in die main, remained centralized at the School for the Blind at Worcester because the number of blind pupils has never increased to such an extent to justify a fully fledged second school for White blind children. Schools for the visually handicapped (blind and partially sighted children) are government-aided. The task of the church control bodies of these schools is, strictly speaking, mainly of a advisory nature. The fact that financial assistance for expansion, additional staff and other educational services can be provided by the church control body offers the principals of these schools the opportunity to display personal initiative in order to eliminate educational problems. As in the case of the RSA, there are indications that there is no significant increase in the number of blind children in overseas countries, although the percentage of multihandicapped blind children is increasing. Whereas mentally handicapped blind children are in fact admitted to schools for the blind in the RSA, it is the tendency in some overseas countries to provide for those children in separate schools or institutions. Comparative studies have revealed that the young blind child generally takes longer to obtain a grip on reality, is slower to master language and develops at a tardier tempo at the motor and social level than the normally sighted child. The presence of a blind child in a family often impairs the parent-child relationship. For this reason, parents have a need of assistance with regard to the formal and formative education of their pre-school blind children. In some overseas countries, such assistance takes the form of visits to parental homes by teachers and social workers as well as the establishment of parent clinics which are attended by parents and their blind toddlers and nursery schools for blind children. There are three factors basic to the uncertainty in respect of the applicability of a numerical criterion as a yardstick for admission to schools for the blind, viz: The possibility of a faulty evaluation on the part of the ophthalmologist; the fact that visually handicapped children sometimes use their remaining vision in totally different ways, and the uncertainty with regard to the determination of the progressiveness of the eye condition. At some schools for the blind in overseas countries, the inflexible separation of braille candidates and the partially sighted is eliminated by instructing border-line eases through the tactile as well as the visual medium. School-going pupils may be divided into three categories, viz pupils who are prepared for entry into sheltered workshops; pupils who, after receiving vocational training at school, make a direct entry into the open labour market and pupils who complete their secondary school careers successfully and continue their training at tertiary level. This provides an indication of the comprehensive nature of the School for the Blind at Worcester. As regards pre-prima~ blind children, they are provided for, from the approximate age of five years, in a preparatory class which offers a formative educational programme. The instruction programme in this class includes, inter alia, number concepts, religion, oral work, singing and music, elementary handwork and the elementary principles of braille. The extramural programme of these children is concentrated in particular on the promotion of their orientation in respect of reality, socialization and mobility. During the exploratory visits to schools for the blind, it appeared that primary school teachers succeed in individualizing the instruction to a considerable extent, in ensuring the involvement of the blind child in the classroom activities and in breaking through his wall of isolation. They are also capable of integrating educational aids in an accountable manner and to give priority to assisting the young blind child in his development towards independence. At the School for the Blind, remedial education is offered in Adjustment classes, whereas mentally retarded blind pupils are transferred to Special classes. Syllabuses and curricula offered in the secondary section of the School for the Blind are basically similar to those at schools for normally sighted pupils. Differentiation within the class context occurs mainly by devoting individual attention to pupils, interclass grouping, variation in the rate of progress and the elimination of more difficult sections of the subject-matter for less gifted pupils. The matriculation results of the School for the Blind compare extremely favourable with those of schools for normally sighted pupils. It appears from the educational programme which is offered that specific attempts are made to cope with the unique problems which confront the education of the blind. There is differentiation in respect of the various aspects of the educational programme. These methods of differentiation refer to blind pupils among themselves as well as to blind pupils in contrast with normally sighted pupils. By employing an adaptable approach, considerable progress has already been made towards extending effectively the educational programme for the blind in the light of the blind pupil's needs and the demands of a seeing world. As regards vocational training at the School for the Blind, provision is made for various categories of blind children. The most important problems which are experienced in this regard are the limited occupational opportunities existing for the blind, which consequently hamper the extension of vocational training at the school. The nature of the vocational training of the blind in various overseas countries is largely similar to that offered in this country. Unlike the practical situation at the School for the Blind at Worcester, general education still forms an integral part of vocational training programmes at schools and training institutions for the blind in England and Belguim, in particular. A considerable number of the teaching staff at the School for the Blind at Worcester do not possess the Diploma in Special Education. This may be attributed to the fact that some teachers took the former internal course which the school itself offered; that others were trained abroad; that some have had so many years of teaching experience that further training is not deemed necessary and that others are still engaged in the course. In addition to the tertiary training of the staff, particular attention is devoted to in-service training at schools for the blind in the RSA. The improvement in the course of time in the staff position at schools for the blind in the RSA indicates that, with the aid and co-operation of the responsible departments, much has been achieved. However, the fact that certain class groups have, of necessity, to be grouped together and that certain posts are financed by church control bodies' would indicate that problems regarding adequate teaching staff are constantly being experienced. The comprehensive character of the School for the Blind, in particular, renders liberal staffing essential. The scope of psychological and guidance services at schools for visually handicapped is impressive. Pedodiagnosis is undertaken and individual assistance is provided in respect of pupils with problems pertaining to the person structure; complete personal profiles of pupils are drawn up; remedial instruction is given on an individual basis; play therapy is applied and guidance offered with regard to the choice of subjects, field of study and occupation. However, problems are experienced in obtaining suitable evaluation media. Ophthalmic, optometric, medical, physiotherapeutic and speech therapeutic services, on a full-time or part-time basis, are available at schools for the visually handicapped in the RSA. The increasing number of multihandicapped blind children demands that medical and paramedical services should be concentrated to a greater extent on the needs of these children. The provision and use of educational aids which render possible and facilitate learning through the tactile and auditive medium are directly related to the degree of success achieved in the teaching of the blind. The School for the Blind at Worcester has a tape recording studio and a braille printing works. In order to try and ensure that the blind child will arrive at meaningful interpretation and the accurate forming of concepts, use is made, inter alia, of true-to-life models which the child can feel. The hostel as an educational milieu has been established by the educational authorities but does not, as such, constitute a natural educational environment. Justice can only be done to the task of education in the hostel if the child accepts the authority of the house parents, education by means of identification succeeds, house parents are required to assume responsibility for educating only a fairly small group of children and one guards against the real danger of isolating the blind child. The considerably distances between many parental homes and the School for the Blind at Worcester cause some pupils to visit their parents at home comparatively rarely and liaison between parents and staff is also affected as a result. Apart from the more formal educational, training and guidance programmes which are offered, schools for the blind have a particular responsibility in various other respects. Instruction in orientation and mobility, as well as in the mastery of everyday household tasks, is provided at the School for the Blind at Worcester. An important aim of the participation of the blind in recreational and cultural activities is to promote their social integration in the seeing community. Various schools for the blind in overseas countries devote attention to sex education. The formal sex and marriage guidance programme which is offered at the Bartimeus Institute in Zeist (Nether= lands) is regarded as successful and even parents of blind day scholars have requested that their children be included in this programme. Fields of study in which blind school-leavers of the School for the Blind continue their studies at tertiary training institutions are the following: Theology, law, teaching, physiotherapy, social work and music. Students sometimes experience specific problems in obtaining textbooks in braille or on tape. Fields of study in which some blind persons are studying at the tertiary level in overseas countries but which have not, at this stage been established as fields of study with occupational possibilities for the blind are nursing, programming, journalism and the natural sciences. In addition to the School for the Blind, there are various bodies which concern themselves with the occupational placement of the blind, as well as with after-care on behalf of blind persons who pursue occupations. The major problem with regard to the occupational placement of the blind is the fact that occupational opportunities are limited which renders difficult an accountable occupational choice on the part of the blind person. Blind persons in the United States of America enter a wider variety of occupations than in the case of any other country involved in the investigation. The exploration of accessible occupations for the blind in the USA is based mainly on occupational analysis and various occupations are split up in such a way that blind persons may be integrated productively. In the light of the investigation, recommendations were made in respect of the following aspects of the education for the blind in the RSA: 1. The control of education for blind pupils. 2. Certain organizational aspects of the education for blind pupils. 3. Provision for the pre-school blind child. 4. Measures with reference to the admission of pupils to schools for the blind. 5. Differentiation in various study courses with reference to different categories of blind pupils. 6. The curricula with reference to various study courses and school phases. 7. Grouping of pupils and, in particular, the combined instruction of blind and partially sighted pupils (border-line cases) in the classroom. 8. Continued vocational training at schools for the blind and the nature of the vocational training courses. 9. The training of teaching staff. 10. Staffing at schools for the blind. 11. Psychological and guidance services at schools for the blind. 12. The production of literature in braille and on tape and the manufacture of other educational aids. 13. The integration of braille candidates in ophthalmic and optometric services and the provision of medical and paramedical services with reference to multihandicapped blind children. 14. Measures regarding residential schools for the blind. 15. The expansion of the teaching of orientation and mobility to blind children, use of leisure, the social integration of the blind child, marriage and sex guidance to blind children, and the creation of opportunities for blind children to realise their creative potential. 16. Measures to promote the occupational placement of blind school-leavers. 17. The expansion of occupational opportunities for the blind. These recommendations with regard to the formal and formative education of the blind in the RSA envisage the introduction of certain essential innovations, the eliminations of existing crucial problems and the extension of differentiated education. / Proefskrif--PU vir CHO

Thesis (MEd)--PU vir CHO

The aim of this investigation was to review the position of the formal and formative education of the blind in the RSA, to pay particular attention to crucial problems and, by means of a scientifically accountable interpretation and evaluation, to arrive at meaningful recommendations in respect of a system of education for blind pupils. As regards the situation in the RSA, various methods were employed to obtain information. Visits were paid to schools, questionnaires completed by school principals and members of the staff, and interviews conducted with experts in various fields. Questionnaires were also sent to schools for the blind in certain overseas countries and an intensive literature study was undertaken. Being blind implies particular limitations in comparison with the seeing person. The blind person's exploration of his world is hampered; he is deprived, to a certain extent, of his freedom as a person and limitations are imposed on his potential of self-determination; his fellow-man may deny his human dignity; his opportunities and possibilities for self-actualization are restricted, and his future perspective is blurred. Certain educational directives arise from these implications of being blind. These include the following: The necessity of differentiated formal and formative education; the preparation of the blind child for the reality of life among the seeing, but also acknowledgement of the blind person's potential and limitations; the advancement of the mobility of the blind; the necessity of the effective use of his remaining senses, and aid to the blind child in respect of social integration, use of leisure, orientation with regard to the opposite sex, and his creative self-realization. The NG Kerk has made a particular contribution towards the establishment of education for the blind in the RSA. Education for the blind has, in die main, remained centralized at the School for the Blind at Worcester because the number of blind pupils has never increased to such an extent to justify a fully fledged second school for White blind children. Schools for the visually handicapped (blind and partially sighted children) are government-aided. The task of the church control bodies of these schools is, strictly speaking, mainly of a advisory nature. The fact that financial assistance for expansion, additional staff and other educational services can be provided by the church control body offers the principals of these schools the opportunity to display personal initiative in order to eliminate educational problems. As in the case of the RSA, there are indications that there is no significant increase in the number of blind children in overseas countries, although the percentage of multihandicapped blind children is increasing. Whereas mentally handicapped blind children are in fact admitted to schools for the blind in the RSA, it is the tendency in some overseas countries to provide for those children in separate schools or institutions. Comparative studies have revealed that the young blind child generally takes longer to obtain a grip on reality, is slower to master language and develops at a tardier tempo at the motor and social level than the normally sighted child. The presence of a blind child in a family often impairs the parent-child relationship. For this reason, parents have a need of assistance with regard to the formal and formative education of their pre-school blind children. In some overseas countries, such assistance takes the form of visits to parental homes by teachers and social workers as well as the establishment of parent clinics which are attended by parents and their blind toddlers and nursery schools for blind children. There are three factors basic to the uncertainty in respect of the applicability of a numerical criterion as a yardstick for admission to schools for the blind, viz: The possibility of a faulty evaluation on the part of the ophthalmologist; the fact that visually handicapped children sometimes use their remaining vision in totally different ways, and the uncertainty with regard to the determination of the progressiveness of the eye condition. At some schools for the blind in overseas countries, the inflexible separation of braille candidates and the partially sighted is eliminated by instructing border-line eases through the tactile as well as the visual medium. School-going pupils may be divided into three categories, viz pupils who are prepared for entry into sheltered workshops; pupils who, after receiving vocational training at school, make a direct entry into the open labour market and pupils who complete their secondary school careers successfully and continue their training at tertiary level. This provides an indication of the comprehensive nature of the School for the Blind at Worcester. As regards pre-prima~ blind children, they are provided for, from the approximate age of five years, in a preparatory class which offers a formative educational programme. The instruction programme in this class includes, inter alia, number concepts, religion, oral work, singing and music, elementary handwork and the elementary principles of braille. The extramural programme of these children is concentrated in particular on the promotion of their orientation in respect of reality, socialization and mobility. During the exploratory visits to schools for the blind, it appeared that primary school teachers succeed in individualizing the instruction to a considerable extent, in ensuring the involvement of the blind child in the classroom activities and in breaking through his wall of isolation. They are also capable of integrating educational aids in an accountable manner and to give priority to assisting the young blind child in his development towards independence. At the School for the Blind, remedial education is offered in Adjustment classes, whereas mentally retarded blind pupils are transferred to Special classes. Syllabuses and curricula offered in the secondary section of the School for the Blind are basically similar to those at schools for normally sighted pupils. Differentiation within the class context occurs mainly by devoting individual attention to pupils, interclass grouping, variation in the rate of progress and the elimination of more difficult sections of the subject-matter for less gifted pupils. The matriculation results of the School for the Blind compare extremely favourable with those of schools for normally sighted pupils. It appears from the educational programme which is offered that specific attempts are made to cope with the unique problems which confront the education of the blind. There is differentiation in respect of the various aspects of the educational programme. These methods of differentiation refer to blind pupils among themselves as well as to blind pupils in contrast with normally sighted pupils. By employing an adaptable approach, considerable progress has already been made towards extending effectively the educational programme for the blind in the light of the blind pupil's needs and the demands of a seeing world. As regards vocational training at the School for the Blind, provision is made for various categories of blind children. The most important problems which are experienced in this regard are the limited occupational opportunities existing for the blind, which consequently hamper the extension of vocational training at the school. The nature of the vocational training of the blind in various overseas countries is largely similar to that offered in this country. Unlike the practical situation at the School for the Blind at Worcester, general education still forms an integral part of vocational training programmes at schools and training institutions for the blind in England and Belguim, in particular. A considerable number of the teaching staff at the School for the Blind at Worcester do not possess the Diploma in Special Education. This may be attributed to the fact that some teachers took the former internal course which the school itself offered; that others were trained abroad; that some have had so many years of teaching experience that further training is not deemed necessary and that others are still engaged in the course. In addition to the tertiary training of the staff, particular attention is devoted to in-service training at schools for the blind in the RSA. The improvement in the course of time in the staff position at schools for the blind in the RSA indicates that, with the aid and co-operation of the responsible departments, much has been achieved. However, the fact that certain class groups have, of necessity, to be grouped together and that certain posts are financed by church control bodies' would indicate that problems regarding adequate teaching staff are constantly being experienced. The comprehensive character of the School for the Blind, in particular, renders liberal staffing essential. The scope of psychological and guidance services at schools for visually handicapped is impressive. Pedodiagnosis is undertaken and individual assistance is provided in respect of pupils with problems pertaining to the person structure; complete personal profiles of pupils are drawn up; remedial instruction is given on an individual basis; play therapy is applied and guidance offered with regard to the choice of subjects, field of study and occupation. However, problems are experienced in obtaining suitable evaluation media. Ophthalmic, optometric, medical, physiotherapeutic and speech therapeutic services, on a full-time or part-time basis, are available at schools for the visually handicapped in the RSA. The increasing number of multihandicapped blind children demands that medical and paramedical services should be concentrated to a greater extent on the needs of these children. The provision and use of educational aids which render possible and facilitate learning through the tactile and auditive medium are directly related to the degree of success achieved in the teaching of the blind. The School for the Blind at Worcester has a tape recording studio and a braille printing works. In order to try and ensure that the blind child will arrive at meaningful interpretation and the accurate forming of concepts, use is made, inter alia, of true-to-life models which the child can feel. The hostel as an educational milieu has been established by the educational authorities but does not, as such, constitute a natural educational environment. Justice can only be done to the task of education in the hostel if the child accepts the authority of the house parents, education by means of identification succeeds, house parents are required to assume responsibility for educating only a fairly small group of children and one guards against the real danger of isolating the blind child. The considerably distances between many parental homes and the School for the Blind at Worcester cause some pupils to visit their parents at home comparatively rarely and liaison between parents and staff is also affected as a result. Apart from the more formal educational, training and guidance programmes which are offered, schools for the blind have a particular responsibility in various other respects. Instruction in orientation and mobility, as well as in the mastery of everyday household tasks, is provided at the School for the Blind at Worcester. An important aim of the participation of the blind in recreational and cultural activities is to promote their social integration in the seeing community. Various schools for the blind in overseas countries devote attention to sex education. The formal sex and marriage guidance programme which is offered at the Bartimeus Institute in Zeist (Nether= lands) is regarded as successful and even parents of blind day scholars have requested that their children be included in this programme. Fields of study in which blind school-leavers of the School for the Blind continue their studies at tertiary training institutions are the following: Theology, law, teaching, physiotherapy, social work and music. Students sometimes experience specific problems in obtaining textbooks in braille or on tape. Fields of study in which some blind persons are studying at the tertiary level in overseas countries but which have not, at this stage been established as fields of study with occupational possibilities for the blind are nursing, programming, journalism and the natural sciences. In addition to the School for the Blind, there are various bodies which concern themselves with the occupational placement of the blind, as well as with after-care on behalf of blind persons who pursue occupations. The major problem with regard to the occupational placement of the blind is the fact that occupational opportunities are limited which renders difficult an accountable occupational choice on the part of the blind person. Blind persons in the United States of America enter a wider variety of occupations than in the case of any other country involved in the investigation. The exploration of accessible occupations for the blind in the USA is based mainly on occupational analysis and various occupations are split up in such a way that blind persons may be integrated productively. In the light of the investigation, recommendations were made in respect of the following aspects of the education for the blind in the RSA: 1. The control of education for blind pupils. 2. Certain organizational aspects of the education for blind pupils. 3. Provision for the pre-school blind child. 4. Measures with reference to the admission of pupils to schools for the blind. 5. Differentiation in various study courses with reference to different categories of blind pupils. 6. The curricula with reference to various study courses and school phases. 7. Grouping of pupils and, in particular, the combined instruction of blind and partially sighted pupils (border-line cases) in the classroom. 8. Continued vocational training at schools for the blind and the nature of the vocational training courses. 9. The training of teaching staff. 10. Staffing at schools for the blind. 11. Psychological and guidance services at schools for the blind. 12. The production of literature in braille and on tape and the manufacture of other educational aids. 13. The integration of braille candidates in ophthalmic and optometric services and the provision of medical and paramedical services with reference to multihandicapped blind children. 14. Measures regarding residential schools for the blind. 15. The expansion of the teaching of orientation and mobility to blind children, use of leisure, the social integration of the blind child, marriage and sex guidance to blind children, and the creation of opportunities for blind children to realise their creative potential. 16. Measures to promote the occupational placement of blind school-leavers. 17. The expansion of occupational opportunities for the blind. These recommendations with regard to the formal and formative education of the blind in the RSA envisage the introduction of certain essential innovations, the eliminations of existing crucial problems and the extension of differentiated education. / Proefskrif--PU vir CHO

Thesis (MEd)--PU vir CHO

Proefskrif--PU vir CHO

Proefskrif--PU vir CHO

Information from symposiums regarding guidance, as well as information from interviews with school guidance personnel, students and other persona concerned, revealed gaps concerning the present school guidance systems. In this connection the public and private sector can play an important role by revealing the necessary information about the career world to the guidance personnel. The aim of this investigation serves a double purpose. In the first instance to investigate the liaison between the school guidance personnel of the Transvaal Education Department's secondary schools and the public and private sector from the point of view of the literature. Secondly an empirical determination of the nature of the connection between career guidance personnel of the Afrikaans medium secondary schools in Transvaal and the public and private sector, as well as to determine what the attitude of school guidance personnel are towards liaison with the public and private sector. For the purpose of this study, public sector can be defined as the sector where government has partial or total control, whereas in the private sector the government has no direct control. Personal visits to guidance personnel at secondary schools in Transvaal and the questionnaire method were both considered to obtain the necessary information for this study. After thorough consideration, the decision fell upon the questionnaire method. Questionnaires were therefore sent to all Afrikaans medium secondary schools in Transvaal. RECOMMENDATIONS: The following are recommended, bearing the findings of the study in mind: 1. RENEWED INTRODUCTION OF THE COMMITTEE FOR COORDINATION OF CAREER INFORMATION AND CAREER GUIDANCE. The following recommendations about the function of the above mentioned committee can be made: 1.1 the private sector must be accommodated in this committee, 1.2 this committee must be actively involved in a promotion campaign. 2. RESTRUCTURING OF THE EDUCATION POLICY BY THE TRANSVAAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. This study revealed that a number of school guidance personnel did not liaise with the public and private sector due to the Transvaal Education Department's policy. The following are recommended: 2.1 the Education Department's policy about outsiders must be clearly formulated and published to all persons involved, 2.2 free admission by representatives of the public and private sector to schools, 2.3 visiting of career displays and information days by pupils during school hours, 2.4 partnership between the Transvaal Education Department and the public and private sector to be emphasized to the pupils and to improve contact between the Education Department and the public and private sector. 3. INVOLVEMENT OF THE PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR. Liaison is the result of the initiative from the schools while they experience shortages of funds, time limits, transport problems and long distances. It is therefore recommended that the public and private sector will visit schools on their own initiative. FINAL REMARKS: There is a definite need for liaison between school guidance personnel and the public and private sector. This study emphasizes the results of the HRC's Study Committee: Guidance (1981) and as such the findings of this study are closely related with the findings and recommendations of the HRC's Study Committee. The quality of school guidance will be improved by liaison and this will improve the pupils' ability to make responsible career choices. It is therefore of the utmost importance for all partners in the school guidance programme to work closely together and to liaise more effectively. / Thesis (MEd)--PU vir CHO, 1991

Information from symposiums regarding guidance, as well as information from interviews with school guidance personnel, students and other persona concerned, revealed gaps concerning the present school guidance systems. In this connection the public and private sector can play an important role by revealing the necessary information about the career world to the guidance personnel. The aim of this investigation serves a double purpose. In the first instance to investigate the liaison between the school guidance personnel of the Transvaal Education Department's secondary schools and the public and private sector from the point of view of the literature. Secondly an empirical determination of the nature of the connection between career guidance personnel of the Afrikaans medium secondary schools in Transvaal and the public and private sector, as well as to determine what the attitude of school guidance personnel are towards liaison with the public and private sector. For the purpose of this study, public sector can be defined as the sector where government has partial or total control, whereas in the private sector the government has no direct control. Personal visits to guidance personnel at secondary schools in Transvaal and the questionnaire method were both considered to obtain the necessary information for this study. After thorough consideration, the decision fell upon the questionnaire method. Questionnaires were therefore sent to all Afrikaans medium secondary schools in Transvaal. RECOMMENDATIONS: The following are recommended, bearing the findings of the study in mind: 1. RENEWED INTRODUCTION OF THE COMMITTEE FOR COORDINATION OF CAREER INFORMATION AND CAREER GUIDANCE. The following recommendations about the function of the above mentioned committee can be made: 1.1 the private sector must be accommodated in this committee, 1.2 this committee must be actively involved in a promotion campaign. 2. RESTRUCTURING OF THE EDUCATION POLICY BY THE TRANSVAAL EDUCATION DEPARTMENT. This study revealed that a number of school guidance personnel did not liaise with the public and private sector due to the Transvaal Education Department's policy. The following are recommended: 2.1 the Education Department's policy about outsiders must be clearly formulated and published to all persons involved, 2.2 free admission by representatives of the public and private sector to schools, 2.3 visiting of career displays and information days by pupils during school hours, 2.4 partnership between the Transvaal Education Department and the public and private sector to be emphasized to the pupils and to improve contact between the Education Department and the public and private sector. 3. INVOLVEMENT OF THE PUBLIC AND PRIVATE SECTOR. Liaison is the result of the initiative from the schools while they experience shortages of funds, time limits, transport problems and long distances. It is therefore recommended that the public and private sector will visit schools on their own initiative. FINAL REMARKS: There is a definite need for liaison between school guidance personnel and the public and private sector. This study emphasizes the results of the HRC's Study Committee: Guidance (1981) and as such the findings of this study are closely related with the findings and recommendations of the HRC's Study Committee. The quality of school guidance will be improved by liaison and this will improve the pupils' ability to make responsible career choices. It is therefore of the utmost importance for all partners in the school guidance programme to work closely together and to liaise more effectively. / Thesis (MEd)--PU vir CHO, 1991

The Aim of the Study - The study aims at describing the organizational functioning of certain South African Universities, mainly in terms of a) The processes of goal formulation, b) The structure of the universities, as well as the relationships between the main structural components, c) The nature of the communication and control processes in the Universities. By doing this the study could be of use in promoting a better understanding of the university as an organization. The Method of the Study - The first part of the study consist of an investigation of the literature pertaining to: a) The historical development of the university in the western world with particular emphasis on structural aspects. b) The theory of organizations. c) Contemporary studies of universities, mainly in the USA and Great Britain. The second part of the study deals with the results of an empirical investigation at nine South African universities. During visits to these universities interviews were held with sixty-eight individuals. In the final part of the study the results of both the literature study and the interviews were interpreted leading to a model of the organizational functioning of these universities. The Limitations of the Study - a) The study was limited in that only nine of the seventeen universities in South Africa were included in the investigation. This was done to ensure a sample of similar institutions for the study. b) The university can be studied from different perspectives. This study concentrates on the university as an organization, rather than on the perspectives of the university as an institution or as a community. c) The study limits itself to the main structural components of the university, thus avoiding personal or interpersonal aspects. d) The study concentrates on the managerial level of the functioning of the universities avoiding any detailed involvement in aspects of instruction and research. The Historical Development of the University - The mediaeval university was modelled after the mediaeval guilds, and the university thus became an organization controlled by its members, particularly the masters or teachers. The structure of the University of Paris, consisting of four nations and four faculties, was complex, but it is noteworthy that the elected officials of the University had little executive authority and were only elected for short periods at a time. This was not the case in Bologna where the students, and not the teachers, were in control of the university and where the elected officials had more executive authority. The development of colleges at particularly the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge introduced, for the first time, a structure whereby the daily lives of students were controlled by the university. This was probably the first of a series of additional functions that the university took upon itself since the middle ages. These additional functions, including in later centuries. various aspects of research, student services and community services, brought about a greater complexity in the university but it was nevertheless still handled within the basic structural arrangements of the mediaeval universities. The new German universities of the nineteenth century introduced research as an essential function of the university and also introduced active involvement by the government in university affairs. These developments also lead to a more prominent position for the professor as the head of the academic department. The first South African universities grew from colleges that were founded by public groups in the nineteenth century. The first of those colleges came to be governed by a College Council consisting of a majority of lay members, including government representatives. Purely academic matters were delegated to a Senate, consisting of the professors of the College. This structure was eventually adopted by all South African universities. The Theory of Organizations and its application on Universities - The work of the early management thinkers like Fayol, Weber and Taylor lead to the development of a school of thought about management witch came to be known as the classical school. This work has gained widespread acceptance, particularly because of the "management' principles" that it developed. The work of the behaviouralist school challenged the classical school's incomplete view of particularly the human aspects of organizations and thus lead to a more comprehensive view of organizations. During the sixties various systems based approaches to the •Study of organizations were developed. The sociotechnical model, based on the work of Homans and the Tavistock-group, and the decision-based approach of the Carnegie-school formed a basis from which the contingency theory of organizations evolved. The contingency theory provides a useful approach to the study of various organizations, particularly because it recognises the differences that exist between organizations and also because it allows the prediction of such differences. on the basis of the various contingencies faced by organizations. The work of Khandwalla (1977) is a useful compilation of the contingency theory and the propositions of Khandwalla are used to predict the characteristics of South African universities on the basis of a description of these organizations and their environments. Different sets of assumptions and predictions were developed for both the academic activities of the university and the non-academic support functions. These predictions correlated well with the results •of the empirical investigations. Lastly the applicability of the organizations type, the "professional beaurocracy" (Mintzberg, 1979), was also evaluated in relation to these universities. This model correlated well with some aspects but not with all. Models of the University - Beaurocratic and Collegial Models: The two basic models of the university are the beaurocratic and the collegial models. These• models are both incomplete descriptions of South African universities. The beaurocratic model ignores the important decision-making processes in universities and the collegial model ignores the authority of the different formal positions in the university structure. Other Models: Rice (1970) outlines a model of the university largely based on the concept of "process flow". This model reduces the university to a rather mechanical structure, neglecting the many complex interactions that form part of the functioning of universities. Verry and Davies (1976) use an econometric approach to describe the university. This is useful in analyzing aspects such as marginal costs but it is not useful for the purposes of this study Baldridge (1971) developed a "political" model of the university focusing on the processes of negotiating and the role of interest groups. This is a useful model but it places too much emphasis on crisis and conflict situations and too little on the normal functioning of universities. Richman and Farmer (1974) states that universities are mismanaged due to a lack of clear goals and they propose goal formulation as the basis for a proposed system of university management. Cyert (1975) agrees with this reasoning and outlines a process of evaluation based on this approach. Clark (1977) described the university as a federation of groups.-whilst the groups are often run on a collegial basis the coordination between the groups is more often handled on a beaurocratic basis. Cohen and March (1974) found that the university was an "organized anarchy", an organization in which departments and other segments of the organization were almost autonomous. Leadership was very weak and the organization as a whole aimless and purposeless. Two generalized Models: From the foregoing two generalized models of the university were postulated. The first is called the "traditional model" and this model stresses values such as individual autonomy and collegial values. The second model is called the "management model" and it stresses the necessity of clear goals, evaluation of achievement and a •strong role for the university management. The management model is of a normative nature whilst the traditional model is more often found in empirical studies of universities. The Goals of Universities - The nature of an organization is largely determined by the goals of that organization. The model of goal formulation described by Cyert and March (1963) states that goals are not determined only by the management of an organization but that it should rather. be seen as the result of a negotiation process involving numerous persons and groups both inside and outside the organization. Normative goals of the University - Various authors discussed the role of the university and amongst them Newman (1858) is notable for his view that universities should see their main task as the transmission, of culture and the general education of men rather than training for professions. Another view is that universities should see their task firstly as the quest and transmission of knowledge. This emphasis on research has gained widespread acceptance as another basic function of the university. The function of training people, particularly for professions in the community, has always been a part of the task of universities. Particularly from the point of view of the community this is an important task of the university. The task of community service as a secondary function of universities has also been firmly established. It is shown that these views of the university are not necessary complementary and that a clear formulation of aims based on all these various views is difficult to achieve. Commissions of Enquiry into universities in Britain, the USA and South Africa all formulated aims of the university in similar terms, indicating the wide and vague nature of university goals. The Empirical Investigation into goals - The questions asked during the interviews which formed part. of this study were analyzed and it was shown that goals in a university are formulated on different levels. Goals pertaining to the area of research of individual academics were established by individual academics. Goals pertaining to the nature and content of courses were established by academic departments with some control by faculties. The management of the university thus had little direct involvement in the formulation of goals pertaining to the basic university functions. Their role was mostly on the level of the allocation of resources. THE STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF SOUTH AFRICAN UNIVERSITIES - The structure of the universities was reduced to the following seven components: 1. The Council and its committees, 2. The Senate and its committees. 3. The Principals and Vice-Principals. 4. The. Academics. 5. The Administrative Staff. 6. The Students. 7. The Environment of the University. Each of these components were analyzed in the literature and various aspects were also dealt with during the interviews, particularly by establishing the amount of agreement that the respondents had with a list of twenty statements concerning universities. The Council and its committees - It was found that whilst the council had great legal powers in running the university the style of the council, consisting of a majority of lay members, was likely to be reactive. The councils are often informed and guided by those members who are employed by the universities and lay members have limited influence. The Senate and its committees - Many respondents found university senates to be clumsy and ineffective bodies, mainly because they mostly consist of more than 100 members. Various mechanisms have been employed to streamline the functioning of senate but the overall results does not indicate a clear picture. The Principals and Vice-Principals - This component of the university is in a key position, not only because of its roll in both the council and senate but also because of its great influence in the allocation of resources within the University. The authority of the principals and vice-principals is however limited by the large amount of autonomy enjoyed by academics. The style of leadership that is appropriate to this component is that of persuasion and academic leadership rather than that of directing and controlling. The Academics - It is shown that academics can, for many purposes, be regarded as professionals but that there are also basic differences between the traditional professions and the academic’s role in a university. The academic department is the basic component in the university structure. Because it handles both the teaching and research functions without much outside, interference it can be regarded as the essential part of the university structure. The role •of the heads of departments in South African universities follows the British pattern in which the head is in a very strong position relative to the staff and students in his department. The Administrative Staff - The management of the administrative component of the university can either be handled by a committee structure consisting mainly of academics or the administration could be seen as a component that should be managed in a beaurocratic manner. These two styles are often found mixed in South African : universities and this causes tension and leads to frustration and inefficiency. The Students - Despite various efforts to involve students to a larger extent in the decision-making processes of the university the actual role played by students is limited to sporadic inputs in certain areas. The Environment of the University - South African Universities are influenced by a great number of institutions and individuals in the community. This influence is brought to bear on practically all the components of the university. Control Processes at Universities - It is shown that universities are traditionally reluctant to introduce effective control processes, including evaluation and corrective procedures, in respect of academic activities. The empirical study indicated that whilst most respondents were agreeable to the basic principles of control processes most of them also had serious reservations to the practical implications of the introduction of such measures. Organizations such as universities are also ill equipped to adopt themselves to changes in the demands made on them. Rather than making basic changes in the organizational structure new demands are normally met by establishing new organizational units to handle these new responsibilities. Conclusion. When evaluating the results of the study against the "traditional" and "management" models of the university it was found that both the theoretical predictions and the empirical investigation strongly supported the traditional model of the university as the applicable one to South African universities. The limited role of council, the large amount of freedom that academics enjoy in teaching and research, the subordinate role of administrative staff and the virtual absence of control processes all support this view. The very active and influential role of the principals and vice-principals in the management of the university and the importance of the environment to the university does however indicate that important aspects of the management model are also present in the universities. / Thesis (DBA)--PU vir CHO, 1982

Although the South African government plays an increasing role in tertiary education, its involvement has not received the attention that it deserves. The goals of tertiary education are multi-dimensional at the individual and societal levels, but the guiding paradigm was viewing it in relation to the manpower and socio-economic needs of the country. This meant analysing how the government attempted to deal with these needs, especially in certain key professions, such as engineering and teaching. The following hypotheses were tested: HYPOTHESIS 1 The prestige of the universities within the tertiary education system will persist for a longer period than the economic rewards of its graduates alone would justify. HYPOTHESIS 2 The expansion from elite to mass tertiary education will lead to greater dependence on government funding and increased need for control, co-ordination, and national standards. HYPOTHESIS 3 Governments will underinvest in technical education. HYPOTHESIS 4 In "bad" economic times tertiary education enrolments will decline. HYPOTHESIS 5 Continuing university prestige will cause the college of advanced technical education (CATE) and technikon enrolments and diplomas and certificates awarded to lag behind university degrees and diplomas. HYPOTHESIS 6 In "bad" economic times CATE and technikon technical enrolments will decline. HYPOTHESIS 7 Fears of surpluses of university graduates, especially in the arts, on the one hand and shortages of certain types of manpower on the other hand will lead to government efforts to redress the balance. HYPOTHESIS 8 There will be significant limitations on government efforts to create the desired numbers and types of skilled manpower, for interventionism of this sort will run counter to individual aspirations. Tertiary education for all of the population groups since 1945 was covered. Whilst there are some gaps in the available enrolment and expenditure data, they do not invalidate the conclusions. In a plural society with deep cleavages amongst the four main population groups and lesser intra group cleavages, separate education systems developed. All population groups value academic education very highly, especially the blacks. The biases in favour of an academic education are deep rooted and multi-faceted, going back to the colonial times. Within the South African context, there are also political, socio-economic, educational, and vocational factors reinforcing these biases. Ever since the creation of the Union in 1910 there has been an ongoing debate and controversy about the division of authority in education between the central government and the provincial governments. This has been especially the case with the colleges of education for the whites. It Will soon end, however, when the central government will take them over, as well as primary and secondary schools for the whites. Black education was taken over from provincial governments in 1954 up to the university level as part of the separate development policy. The same was done in the case of coloured education in 1967, and by 1970 with Indian education. In 1960 the University College of Fort Hare was taken over by the central government, and the University Colleges of Zululand and North were also created in 1959 for specific ethnic groups. Since then all of the non-white universities have experienced student unrest, especially the black ones. The government policy had the unintended consequence of contributing to their politicisation. The administrative structure is a complex one. There is one education ministry for each major population group, plus one dealing with general education matters. An elaborate statutory advisory system of boards, committees, and councils exists. There is, however, no body offering advice to the government on tertiary education as a whole for any of the population groups. The current expenditures for universities from 1953 until 1985 were under the Holloway formula, consisting of the basic subsidy, standard provision, cost of living allowance, free income, and capital expenditure. The new formula provides more emphasis upon outputs, with half of the funds being made available in June and the other half in December. Those in the natural sciences also receive somewhat more than those in the human sciences. University enrolments have grown much faster than the college of education, CATE, and technikon enrolments. Thus, the first part of Hypothesis 1 was substantiated. One of the consequences of •this phenomenal growth has been a significant failure rate, especially amongst first-year university students. This great expansion of tertiary education has led to greater dependence on government funding, as predicted by Hypothesis 2. Hypothesis 3 also holds true, for there was underinvestment in CATE and technikon education for a long time as opposed to university education, although this is no longer true for the non-whites. Hypotheses 4 and 6 lacked significant supporting evidence and thus they were not confirmed. Tertiary education overall enrolments are not normally economically determined to any marked degree. Hypothesis 5 was upheld, because CATE and technikon enrolments and certificates and diplomas awarded as contrasted to university enrolments and degrees and diplomas awarded have lagged behind total awards and constitute a declining proportion. The last part of Hypothesis 1 is confirmed; technicians earn almost as much as teachers and sometimes even more than university graduates. Yet, they lack their prestige. Human capital theory, beginning in the 1960s, provided the theoretical justification for the great expansion of tertiary education. It maintained that investment in education will yield rich dividends to the individuals and to the economy in terms of higher growth. Since the early 1970s, however, it has come under increasing criticism from social scientists. Many maintained that there might be a declining positive correlation between education enrolments and growth rates and even negative correlations. Some even maintained that there are social limits to growth, including in education. Developing surpluses of university graduates abroad, continuing shortages of engineers and technicians, and the rising number of secondary school graduates, most of them with an academic education, led to government concern and the creation of the De Lange Commission. The government tried to redress the balance between university graduates in general and the shortages of technical and teaching personnel in particular. The De Lange Commission maintained that education must be linked to the manpower and economic development needs of the country. Earlier government commissions addressed the problems of technical and teaching personnel shortages. Many of their recommendations were implemented, but shortages of technical personnel have remained. Hypothesis 7 was thus confirmed. The government has tried to pursue the goals of manpower and economic development needs of the country, but as hypothesised (Hypothesis 8) it has run into difficulties because its goals run counter to individual aspirations. Many students pursue tertiary education for purely utilitarian or socio-economic reasons. There is also a minority which desires it for self-development or the advancement of knowledge regardless of the economic consequences. Moreover, the prestige of university education creates a strong social demand for it. Supply and demand projections for engineers and technicians indicate continuing shortages in the short- range at least. As far as the teachers are concerned, there will be enough white, coloured, and Indian ones, perhaps even some surpluses in the medium-range. In the case of the blacks, shortages will remain. The number of non-white university students by 1990 might equal white university students. The white population alone is no longer able to provide sufficient numbers of high level manpower. In the short-range the demand for university graduates looks good, but this does not mean that there will be no problems in the long-range. Unemployment of university graduates has been low, but underemployment, especially in the arts, has been far more significant. There will be increasing numbers of underemployed university graduates, with the potential for political discontent amongst highly educated and frustrated people, especially the blacks. Possible solutions to engineer and technician shortages include the granting of degrees by technikons, validation of technikon courses, and the awarding of degrees by an external authority. In the case of teachers, increasing their renumeration and the merging of the colleges of education with the university faculties of education would result in increasing their prestige and attracting more men to the profession. As far as unemployment and underemployment of university graduates are concerned, the solution lies in relating individual actions to societal needs. Incentives or disincentives of one sort or another appear to be necessary, such as differentiated fee structures and the limiting of enrolments in those disciplines which produce labour market surpluses. The government could also provide employment for unemployed university graduates and encourage the private sector to do the same. All of these solutions have disadvantages as well as advantages, but in the long run they have the potential of avoiding even more serious consequences. / Proefskrif (DPhil)--PU vir CHO, 1986