This research has assessed the environmental and economic sustainability of domestic micro-generation technologies under UK conditions as both individual technologies and as part of a range of future energy supply scenarios for the domestic sector extending to 2050. A life cycle approach has been used for both environmental and economic assessment considering the relevant sustainability impacts, which include global warming potential, the depletion of fossil fuels, human toxicity and life cycle cost. The micro-generation technologies studied were selected on the basis of their ability to contribute to current and future energy supply and also their suitability under UK conditions. These technologies were micro-wind, solar photovoltaics, micro-combined heat and power, heat pumps and solar thermal water heating. The technologies were compared with one another and with the incumbent technologies, which were grid electricity and natural gas condensing boilers. Three journal papers have been published as a result of this research. The evaluation of micro-generation technologies on a life cycle basis indicated that despite reducing certain environmental impacts, all technologies increased at least one and as many as eight environmental impacts compared to their current fossil-fuel alternatives. All micro-generation technologies would reduce global warming and fossil fuel depletion compared to conventional technologies, highlighting their potential to contribute to energy policy goals. However, they cannot currently compete with conventional technologies for capital cost, although their life cycle costs – taking into account incentives from schemes such as Feed-in Tariffs – can be competitive. Considering both environmental and economic implications suggested that Stirling engine micro-combined heat and power is one of the most sustainable options for heat and electricity generation. The results also suggested that heat pumps should not be receiving incentives from the Government due to their poor environmental performance. Four potential future energy supply scenarios for the UK domestic sector were studied extending to 2050. The scenarios varied in terms of the level of effort made to improve the environmental and economic sustainability of the sector. Scenario 1 involved no further implementation of micro-generation beyond 2009, increasing energy demand and a grid electricity dominated by fossil fuels. In contrast, Scenario 4 portrayed a future where there is 1 micro-generation technology per dwelling, a 50% reduction in demand and almost complete decarbonisation of the grid mix. The results indicated that a huge transformation of the sector is required to achieve the 80% reduction in CO2 emissions by 2050. This would include halving energy demand, almost complete decarbonisation of grid electricity and the installation of a micro-generation unit in every dwelling. To conclude, despite the level of interest micro-generation is currently receiving, this work suggested their usage may not necessarily be as beneficial as some believe. Their use does reduce greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuel consumption; however, to have any influence on energy policy goals this use would have to be widespread. Furthermore, reduced emissions will come at the expense of other environmental impacts. Finally, with a number of the technologies not yet cost competitive – even with incentives – the Government focus on measures to reduce demand and decarbonise the grid may prove to be a better option as this work suggested that energy policy goals could be achieved without high penetration of micro-generation.

Since about 2015 the social, environmental and economic risks and chances of the bioeconomy and economy in general are becoming increasingly the subject of applied sustainability assessments. Under a bioeconomy, a variety of industrial metabolisms, strategies and visions on substituting fossil resources by renewables and hereto associated societal transformations is formulated, characterized as regional bioeconomy if most foreground activities take place in a specific region. Based on the life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, further social and economic LCA approaches were developed in previous research whereby life cycle sustainability assessment (LCSA) aims to combine or integrate the evaluation of social, environmental and economic effects. In this early stage of rudimentary and combinatory LCSA development, the research questions of this work are to develop a transdisciplinary framework for integrated LCSA for regional stakeholders to assess ecological, economic and social sustainability in one harmonized method, as well as to implement, apply and validate it by two regional case studies. Therefore, i) the understandings of sustainability and approaches of sustainability assessment in LCA are transdisciplinary reflected and developed, ii) a systemic framework of the important aspects of such assessments is structured by a series of stakeholder workshops, iii) the methods and indicators from existing LCA approaches as well as from bioeconomy monitoring systems are selected, identified and allocated to a sustainability concept of holistic and integrated LCSA (HILCSA), iv) databases for the life cycle inventory and methods for life cycle impact assessment are implemented in a software, as well as v) the model and method is applied and validated in two case studies on laminated veneer lumber production and production of biofuels in central Germany. Based on previous research, the dissertation provides a theoretically well based and practically applicable framework for integrated life cycle sustainability assessment, an applicable indicator set for regional (product & territorial) bioeconomy assessment, an integration of life cycle impact assessment methods as well as their comprehensive interpretation. Thereby, LCSA is able to identify the contribution of regional bioeconomy product systems to 14 out of 17 Sustainable Development Goals in terms of planetary boundaries, a sustainable economy and societal needs. The presented results on material and energetic use cases of biomass show that integrated assessments are able to deliver a broad and comprehensive analysis of impacts to identify synergies, trade-offs and hot spots of regional bioeconomy. Compared to existing LCA and LCSA methodologies, the added value of the HILCSA methodology is its integrated and holistic character, which [1] allows consistent and comparable data on social, ecological, and economic indicators, [2] identifies synergies and trade-offs between different aspects and SDGs, [3] traces down impacts to regions in the fore-and background systems, [4] as well as allocates and aggregates them to the SDGs to make complexity communicable. Additionally, HILCSA takes social sciences and political economy into account from beginning to interpretation and discussion of results, relating to social, environmental, and economic impacts not only to technologies but also to societal, economic, and political questions.:Part I Overarching Introduction 1 1. Introduction 2 2. State of the Art 3 2.1 Sustainability Concepts and Frameworks in the Context of BE and the Role of Stakeholder Participation 3 2.2 LCA and LCSA Approaches for BE Regions 5 2.3 Inter-, Transdisciplinarity and Political Economy for Holistic Sustainability Assessment 7 2.4 Research Gaps to be addressed 8 3. Research Objectives 9 4. Methods 10 4.1 Stakeholder Expectations of the BE in Germany and Relevance of SDGs for Sustainability Assessments 10 4.2 Theoretical and Conceptual Considerations on BE, Sustainability and its Assessment for a Holistic and Integrated Framework for LCSA (HILCSA) 11 4.3 Criteria and Aspects for Implementation and Operationalization of HILCSA for BE Regions 11 4.4 Lessons Learned from Application and Validation of HILCSA in Case Studies and Results on Risks and Chances of a BE Transformation 13 5. Results 14 5.1 Stakeholder Participation in BE Monitoring and Assessment 14 5.1.1 Relevances, Interests and Perceptions 14 5.1.2 Narratives and Visions 17 5.2 Theoretical and Conceptual Implications from a Transdisciplinary Perspective on Sustainability Frameworks and Assessments 19 5.2.1 The Three Pillar Approach and additive LCSA 19 5.2.2 Introduction of Societal Relations to Nature in Sustainability Assessment and LCA 21 5.2.3 Societal-Ecological Transformation and the role of LCSA 21 5.3 Operationalization and Implementation of Holistic and Integrated LCSA (HILCSA) for BE Regions 23 5.3.1 Sustainability Concept and LCA Framework for HILCSA 23 5.3.2 Initial LCI and LCIA for HILCSA 25 5.4 Application and Validation of HILCSA in Case Studies and Results on Risks and Chances of a BE Transformation 31 5.4.1 Application of Holistic and Integrated LCSA: First Case Study on LVL Production in Central Germany 31 5.4.1.1 Goal and Scope 31 5.4.1.2 Life Cycle Inventory 33 5.4.1.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 34 5.4.1.4 Interpretation 35 5.4.2 Application of Holistic and Integrated LCSA: Second Case Study on prospective biomass to liquid production in Germany 36 5.4.2.1 Goal and Scope 36 5.4.2.2 Life Cycle Inventory 38 5.4.2.3 Life Cycle Impact Assessment 39 5.4.2.4 Interpretation 41 6. Conclusion and Outlook 43 6.1 Stakeholder Expectations and Participation 43 6.2 Theoretical Concepts for Sustainability and Methodological Frameworks 44 6.3 Operationalization and implementation of Holistic and Integrated LCSA 45 6.4 Lessons Learned from Case Studies: Identifying Risks and Chances of Regional BE by Applying & Validating HILCSA 47 6.4.1 Risks and Chances of Regional BE in Case of LVL and BtL and Validation of HILCSA 47 6.4.2 Lessons Learned and Future HILCSA Methodology Development 48 6.5 Concluding Remarks on Political (Bio-)Economy and Transformation 52 References 54 List of Acronyms 66 List of Tables 66 List of Figures 66 Part II Publications 68

Environmental releases of chemical compounds from Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products (PPCPs) are receiving growing attention in the scientific community. Most research suggests that the main pathway for these substances to reach the environment is via Wastewater Treatment Plants (WWTPs) due to the effluents from households, industry and hospitals, which can contain substantial amounts of these compounds. Many of these contaminants are poorly treated in conventional WWTPs and are often discharged into the environment with the effluent and sludge, posing ecotoxicological risks to the wildlife and humans. Therefore, it is necessary to limit their release into the environment by controlling their discharge from WWTPs. This can be achieved by adopting advanced wastewater treatment techniques, currently not used as there are no legislative limits on PPCP compounds. However, as the scientific evidence is growing on their adverse impacts, it is only a matter of time before their advanced treatment becomes compulsory. To help guide future developments and inform policy in this area, this work considered a range of advanced treatment techniques with the aim of identifying the most sustainable options. Adopting a life cycle approach and considering all three dimensions of sustainability (economic, environmental and social), nine technologies were assessed on sustainability: four for WWTP effluent and five for sludge treatment. The advanced wastewater treatment methods considered are: (i) granular activated carbon, (ii) nanofiltration, (iii) solar photo-Fenton, and (iv) ozonation. The sludge treatment techniques comprise: (i) anaerobic digestion of sludge for agricultural application; (ii) sludge composting, also for agricultural application; (iii) incineration; (iv) pyrolysis; and (v) wet air oxidation. They were assessed on sustainability using over 28 indicators, some of which were also used to evaluate the implication of different treatment techniques for the energy-water-food (EWF) nexus. Multi-Criteria Decision Analysis (MCDA) was applied to aggregate the sustainability indicators into an overall sustainability index for each alternative and identify the most sustainable option(s). The results suggest that, among the four techniques considered for advanced effluent treatment, nanofiltration and granular activated carbon have the lowest life cycle environmental impacts. Although not preferable at all operating ranges, they have the lowest burdens and are, overall, most sustainable. The latter also has the lowest impact on the EWF nexus at mean operating parameter, and is the preferred option as the treated effluent can be used for potable water due lower concerns over the presence of PPCPs. However, the results also suggest that, from the ecotoxicological point of view, there is little benefit in using any of the advanced wastewater treatment techniques assessed. This is due to the life cycle ecotoxicological impacts from the treatment itself being similar or even higher than for the effluent released into the environment untreated. For sludge treatments, anaerobic digestion and pyrolysis are environmentally and economically preferable techniques. The former is the best with respect to the EWF nexus due to the recovery of energy and agricultural fertilizers. In relation to social aspects, wet air oxidation is amongst the most desirable for high resource recovery, together with the two former techniques. The heavy metals content in the sludge applied on agricultural soils is a major concern for freshwater ecotoxicity potential, posing risks orders of magnitude higher than PPCP compounds.

This research assesses the impacts of developing shale gas in the UK, with the focus of determining whether or not it is possible to develop it sustainably and how it could affect the electricity and gas mix. There is much uncertainty on the impacts of developing shale gas in the UK, as the country is currently in the early stages of exploration drilling and the majority of studies which have been carried out to analyse the effects of shale gas development have been US specific. To address these questions, the environmental, economic and social sustainability have been assessed and the results integrated to evaluate the overall sustainability. The impacts of shale gas electricity have been assessed so that it can be compared with other electricity generation technologies (coal, nuclear, renewables etc.), to ascertain its impacts on the UK electricity mix. Life cycle assessment is used to evaluate the environmental sustainability of shale gas electricity (and other options), while life cycle costing and social sustainability assessment have been used to evaluate the economic and social sustainability. Multi-criteria decision analysis has been used to combine the results of three to evaluate the overall sustainability. The incorporation of shale gas into the UK electricity mix is modelled in two future scenarios for the year 2030. The scenarios compare different levels of shale gas penetration: low and high. The results show that shale gas will have little effect on improving the environmental sustainability and energy security of the UK’s electricity mix, but could help ease energy prices. In comparison with other options, shale gas is not a sustainable option, as it has higher environmental impacts than the non-fossil fuels and conventional gas and liquefied natural gas: 460 g CO2-Eq. is emitted from the shale gas electricity life cycle, while conventional gas emits 420 g CO2-Eq. and wind 12 g CO2-Eq. The power plant and drilling fluid are the main impact hot spots in the life cycle, while hydraulic fracturing contributes a small amount (5%). In addition to this, there are a number of social barriers which need to be addressed, notably: traffic volume and congestion could increase by up to 31%, public support is low and wastewater produced from hydraulic fracturing could put strain on wastewater treatment facilities. However, the results indicate that shale gas is economically viable, as the cost of electricity is cheaper than solar photovoltaic, biomass and hydroelectricity (9.59 p/kWh vs 16.90, 11.90 and 14.40 p/kWh, respectively). The results of this thesis show that there is a trade-off in the impacts, but because of its poor environmental and social ratings shale gas is not the best option for UK electricity. The results also identify areas for improvement which should be targeted, as well as policy recommendations for best practice and regulation if shale gas were to be developed in the UK.

A pesquisa tem como objeto o trabalho e as práticas de cuidado de crianças pequenas, a partir de diferentes processos e sujeitos que realizam essa atividade, gratuitamente nos domicílios ou como profissão. A tese se nutre da interdisciplinariedade própria à teoria feminista e, partindo dos estudos sociológicos sobre trabalho doméstico e de cuidado, constrói uma perspectiva de análise que integra contribuições da economia feminista. Apoia-se nas noções de divisão sexual do trabalho, imbricação das relações sociais de gênero, raça e classe, e na perspectiva da sustentabilidade da vida como instrumentos teóricos que orientam a análise. As diversas modalidades do trabalho de cuidar de crianças se manifestam em uma pluralidade de arranjos, interdependentes, mas também conflitantes e em permanente transformação. Em uma cidade profundamente desigual, como é São Paulo, Estado, mercados, família e comunidade integram a discussão a partir desta diversidade de arranjos, das conexões e dinâmicas entre os sujeitos, os trabalhos e as práticas sociais que sustentam o cuidado. Instituído na Constituição Federal de 1988, o direito à creche é uma reivindicação histórica que marcou a organização popular do feminismo brasileiro. De lá para cá, as creches foram integradas à política de educação, e verificou-se expansão significativa, mas aquém da demanda. Viu-se emergir uma camada profissionalizada de mulheres, com formação no ensino superior, que assumem o cuidado de crianças pequenas como professoras nas creches e pré-escolas. Estas são relativamente mais valorizadas e formalizadas que as que cuidam de crianças na vizinhança ou como trabalhadoras domésticas (babás). As mudanças relativas à composição do cuidado não transformam os princípios da separação, hierarquização e invisibilização nexos da divisão social, sexual e racial do trabalho , mas produzem deslocamentos: aproximam e distanciam mulheres e homens, e mulheres entre si. A análise confirma a indissociabilidade entre o cuidado direto e tudo o que precisa ser feito para garantir as condições de vida alimentação, limpeza , revelando permanências na dinâmica que separa e hierarquiza tais trabalhos, invisibilizando os trabalhos com menor valorização social e os sujeitos responsabilizados por eles. As dimensões do afeto, da dependência/autonomia, dos ritmos, atividades e da responsabilização pelo cuidar são aspectos com manifestações singulares no cuidar de crianças pequenas quando comparadas ao cuidado de idosos, que predomina nas análises contemporâneas sobre o trabalho de cuidado. A pesquisa evidencia que o ajuste entre as lógicas em conflito do capital e da sustentabilidade de vida se dá tanto no trabalho não remunerado (mulheres nas famílias), como no trabalho remunerado de diferentes responsáveis pelo cuidado que absorvem os impactos desse conflito em seus corpos e tempos. / This paper aims to investigate care practices and work with infant and toddler children, looking into several processes and individuals who carry out this activity, whether for free at households or as a paid occupation. The dissertation is established on the specific interdisciplinarity of feminist theory and, coming from sociological studies on care and domestic work, builds a perspective of analysis that integrates contributions from feminist economics. In this sense, the notions of sexual division of labor; the intersectionality of social relations based on gender, race, and class; and the sustainability of life constitute the theoretical framework of this research. The many different modalities of childcare is expressed in a myriad of arrangements that are interdependent, but also conflicting and continuously changing. In a deeply unequal city such as São Paulo, Brazil, the State, markets, the family, and the community integrate the conversation not as stagnant actors, but as part of this diversity of arrangements, the connections and dynamics between individuals, the works, and social practices that support care. Established in Brazils 1988 Constitution, the right to childcare has been historically on the agenda of peoples organization in Brazilian feminism. Since then, childcare centers have been integrated to education policies, and while there has been a significant increase in the number of daycare facilities, they are still not enough to satisfy the demand. A class of technically trained women with a higher education background take on the task of caring for infants and toddlers as teachers in childcare centers and preschools. They are relatively more appreciated and more formally employed than child caregivers who work in their own neighborhood or as domestic workers (nannies). The changes in care-related compositions do not change the principles of separation, hierarchization, and invisibilization as the nexus of social, sexual, and racial division of labor , but rather produce displacements: they bring women and men, and women with each other, closer together or drive them apart. The investigation demonstrates how care and everything that involves providing living conditions food, cleaning are intrinsically indissociable, showing what remains in the dynamics that separate and hierarchize those works, invisibilizing socially underappreciated works and the individuals who are responsible for them. The dimensions of affection, dependence/autonomy, paces, activities, and the assigning of responsibility for care are aspects that manifest in unique ways in childcare when compared to senior care, which prevails in contemporary investigations into care work. This research demonstrates that the adjustment between conflicting logics that of capital and that of the sustainability of life happens both in unpaid work (households) and paid labor of different caregivers who absorb the impacts of this conflicts between their bodies and times.

Die Arbeit richtet sich an Personen der vorwettbewerblichen werkstofftechnischen Forschung und Entwicklung bzw. Personen, die mit einer Produktvorentwicklung betraut sind. Die Arbeit erhebt den Anspruch, für diese Phase eine Vorgehensweise aufzuzeigen, die durch die Nutzung einfach zugänglicher Kenngrößen verschiedenster werkstoff-, produktions- und produkttechnischer Kriterien eine umfassende Nachhaltigkeitsbewertung ermöglicht. In der Arbeit werden anhand identifizierter Strategien werkstofftechnische Maßnahmen zur Steigerung der Nachhaltigkeit in der Produktion aufgegriffen und diskutiert. Es werden Betrachtungsraumgrenzen im Werkstofflebenszyklus erörtert, sowie das Wirken werkstofftechnischer Maßnahmen im Kontext einer nachhaltigen, ressourceneffizienten Produktion diskutiert. Anhand der erarbeiteten Grundlagen werden Kriterien festgelegt, welche die Wirkung werkstofftechnischer Maßnahmen auf die Nachhaltigkeit eines Produkts oder Prozesses sichtbar machen. Im Anschluss wird ein formalisiertes Vorgehen vorgestellt, mit dem konkrete Maßnahmen innerhalb verschiedener Betrachtungsraumgrenzen bewertet und verglichen werden können. Schließlich erfolgt unter Anwendung dieses Vorgehens die Bewertung verschiedener Beispiele werkstofftechnischer Maßnahmen, die nachhaltige Produkte bzw. Produktionsweisen zum Ziel haben. Die Ergebnisse der Bewertungen bilden dabei zum einen Ausgangspunkte für die Anpassung und Weiterentwicklung der betrachteten Maßnahme. Zum anderen dienen sie als Basis für detailliertere Bewertungen unter Nutzung zusätzlicher ökologischer, ökonomischer und sozialer Nachhaltigkeitskriterien. Die bereitgestellte Vorgehensweise sowie die hinzugezogenen Bewertungskriterien orientieren sich vorrangig an den Aufgaben und Problemstellungen der metallverarbeitenden produzierenden Industrie. / The work is addressed to people involved in pre-competitive materials engineering, research and development, or to people entrusted with preliminary product development. It claims to demonstrate a procedure for this phase of production that enables a comprehensive sustainability assessment by using easily accessible parameters of various criteria from material, production and the product itself. The work uses identified strategies to address and discuss measures from material engineering that aim for an increased sustainability in production. The boundaries of the material life cycle are discussed, as well as the effects of material-related measures in the context of a sustainable, resource-efficient production. Basing on the developed principles, criteria are defined which make the effect of material engineering on the sustainability of a products or processes visible. Subsequently, a formalized procedure is presented with which concrete measures can be evaluated and compared with respect to different boundaries set to the product or material life cycle. Finally, this procedure is used to evaluate different examples of material-related measures. The results of the assessments form both, a starting point for the adaptation and further development of the measure under consideration, and a basis for more detailed evaluations using additional ecological, economic and social sustainability criteria. The introduced approach and evaluation criteria are thereby primarily oriented towards the tasks and problems of metalworking manufacturing industries.