Outsiders, such as Lebanese and Syrian Shi‘is often refer to Twelver Shi‘is in the Syrian shrine-town as ‘traditional,’ and even ‘backward.’ They are not the only ones. Both Saddam Hussein and Ayatollah ‘Ali Khamenei have called the bloody flagellation practices, which have only increased in popularity in Sayyida Zaynab over the past few decades, ‘backward’ and ‘irrational.’ Why do these outsiders condemn these Twelver Shi‘is and their Muharram rituals? Why are ‘traditional’ practices popular in the Syrian shrine-town of Sayyida Zaynab? What does ‘tradition’ mean in this context? This dissertation begins with the last question regarding the notion of ‘tradition’ and examines seminary pedagogy, weekly women’s ritual mourning gatherings, annual Muharram practices, and non-institutionalized spiritual healing. Two theoretical paradigms frame the ethnography. The first is Talal Asad’s (1986) notion that an anthropology of Islam should approach Islam as a discursive tradition and second, various iterations of the Karbala Paradigm (Fischer 1981). The concepts overlap, yet they also represent distinct approaches to the notion of ‘tradition.’ The overarching argument in this dissertation is that ‘tradition’ for Twelver Shi‘is in Sayyida Zaynab is not only a rhetorical trope but also an intimate, inter-subjective practice, which ties pious Shi‘i to the members of the Family of the Prophet. The sub-topics are changing patterns in religious pedagogy, the role of embodiment, self, and inter-subjectivity in women’s ritual mourning gatherings, and the applicability of Mikhail Bakhtin’s concept of the carnivalesque (1984). Inspired by Frederick M. Denny (1985), who coined the term ‘orthopraxy’ to describe the importance of ritual practice in Islam, this dissertation refers to transgressive and carnivalesque religious performances as ‘heteropraxy.’ In particular, the emphasis on ‘heteropraxy’ is a critique of recent research on Arab Muslim women’s piety by Saba Mahmood (2005) and Lara Deeb (2006).

A field study was conducted for two years in three semi-arid regions of Syria in order to define, under field conditions, the wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) yield response function to irrigation water salinity and to study the process of soil salt accumulation. The three regions experience similar climatic conditions (semi-arid Mediterranean climate) but have different soil textures, varying from sandy loam to clay. The study involved 74 farms all of which had been irrigating for more than 3 years prior to this study, with well water of different salinity values (0.44 to 14.1 dS/m). All of these farms operated with similar cultural practices. / Results indicate that the wheat yield response function to irrigation water salinity differs between the three regions. The irrigation water threshold salinity value beyond which wheat yield started to decline, was found to be 6.5 dS/m, 3.5 dS/m and 1.2 dS/m in the Khabur low plains; Aleppo south plains and Shedadeh area respectively. Wheat was more salt tolerant to irrigation water salinity in sandy loam soils than clay loam soils. The three threshold values obtained in this study are different from the "universal" value of 4 dS/m which is proposed in current literature. The "universal" value was obtained from artificially salinized field plots seeded under non-saline conditions. / In addition, it was found that salt accumulation in the soil profile increases as soil clay content increases. / The results demonstrate the necessity of establishing regional water quality criteria when planning the use of saline water sources for irrigation in semi-arid regions.

Thesis (M.A.)--Ohio State University, 1987. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 248-251). Available online via OhioLINK's ETD Center

Dissertation--Philosophische Fakultät--Münster, 1978. / Bibliogr. p. 263-295. Index.

A revision of the author's Thesis (master's)--al-Jāmiʻah al-Lubnānīyah, 1982. / Title on added t.p.: Pages memorables de l'histoire de druzes en Syrie et au Liban (1685-1927). Includes bibliographical references (p. 482-489) and index.

Thesis (doctoral)--Universität Konstanz, 2001. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 11-33) and index.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Princeton University, 1924. / "Reprinted from Yale classical studies, vol. I." Bibliography: p. 70-72.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--Princeton University, 1913.

Thesis (doctoral)--Ecole biblique et archéologique française de Jérusalem. / Includes bibliographical references (p. [551]-558) and index.

Thesis--Hamburg. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 57-78 (2d set)) and index.