Thesis (MBA)-- Stellenbosch University, 2005. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Microfinance services in Tanzania have existed for some years, yet have remained weak and slow to develop. Therefore, the objective of this study is to survey problems that impact on the growth of Microfinance Institutions (MFIs) in Tanzania. MFIs in Tanzania include commercial banks, rural community banks, on-bank financial institutions, NGOs and Savings and Credit Co-operative Societies (SACCOs). The problems in the microfinance sector are prioritised and show that the lack of sufficient capital to lend to clients is the problem that has the greatest impact on growth, followed by education level of clients. A number of these problems show agreement as expressed by the Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients. The recommendations directly touch the provision of capital support to MFIs as a most priority criteria towards MFIs growth. Sufficient capital to lend to clients can decrease the impact of other problems that shows correlation with it, such as service quality to customers, attraction of low income earners, client focus, small and irregular cash flows from clients, as well as education level of clients. Finally, it is shown by a selected best practice matrix that solutions to problems impacting on the growth of MFIs in Tanzania depend on a combination of several best practices that can lead to sustainable solutions. Hence MFls may find a combination of relevant best practices that fit efficiently. effectively and economically to their respective operating environments. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Mikrofinansieringsdienste in Tanzania bestaan al geruime jare, maar is ongelukkig swak ontwikkeld en toon stadige groei. Die doelwit van hierdie studie is om probleme te identifiseer wat impakteer op die groei van die Mikrofinansiering-instansies (MFI) in Tanzania. MFIs in Tanzania sluit in kommersiele banke, landelike / gemeenskapsbanke, niebank finansiele instansies, Nie-regeringsorganisasies (NGOs) en Spaar en Krediet Samewerkende Gemeenskappe (SACCO's). Die probleme in die mikrofinansiering-sektor is geprioritiseer en dui daarop dat die gebrek aan beskikbaarheid van voldoende lenings-kapitaal die grootste impak op die sektor het, gevolg deur die vlak van onderwys-opvoeding van kliente. Verskeie van die probleme gelys vind ooreenkomste by mekaar, soos uitgelig deur die "Spearman Rank Correlation Coefficients". Aanbevelings gemaak, hou direk verhand met die voorsiening van kapitale ondersteuning aan MFIs, as die belangrikste kriteria wat sal lei tot MFI groei. Voldoende leningskapitaal kan die impak van ander probleme wat verband hou met die tekort aan kapitaal verminder, soos onder andere die kwaliteit van klientediens, die lae-inkomste mark wat bedien word, kliente fokus, klein / ongereelde inkomste-strome van kliente, asook die onderwys-opvoedingsvlakke van kliente. Ter afsluiting, dit is getoon deur die beste praktykbeginse/s matriks, dat die oplossing vir probleme wat impakteer op die groei van die MFI sektor in Tanzania, afhanklik is van 'n kombinasie van verskeie beste praktykbeginsels wat kan lei tot volhoubare oplossings. Sodoende kan MFIs 'n kombinasie van beste praktykbeginsels vind wat effektief en ekonomies sal werk vir hulle onderskeie omgewings.

Thesis (MCur (Nursing Science))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This research study aims at enhancing the utilisation of primary mental health care services in Dodoma, Tanzania. Primary health care (PHC) according to the Alma Ata conference 1948 is an essential part of the health care system for bringing health care closer to where people live and work, is people-centred, affordable and achieves better health outcomes, and is considered to contribute to communities’ social and economical development. PHC facilities in Tanzania are health centres and dispensaries, which are within five kilometres from where people live. In the 1980s’ countries integrated mental health into PHC to improve the mental health status of their people. To facilitate delivery of Primary Mental Health Care (PMHC), Tanzania has formulated a mental health policy and trained PHC workers on mental health. Despite of these efforts, people still go to referral hospitals for mental health care services. However, authors commented that “when comprehensive primary health is implemented fully” it will bring about security, safety and hope to people and therefore, they will continue to fend for health for all. The main aim was to explore and describe why people go to referral hospitals instead of utilising PMHC services closer to them. A qualitative descriptive clinical ethnographic research design was employed to examine the mental health care-giving within the context of this research. Purposive non-probability sampling was utilised. Sample size was determined by the saturation. Data collection methods were in two phases. Phase one was participative observation on mental health care-giving in the Primary Health Care (PHC) facilities for a period of at least four weeks, and phase two was by use of an in-depth interview with family members at referral hospitals who had passed Primary Health Care facilities. Data analysis was an open thematic coding. Trustworthiness of the research was established through credibility, dependability, conformability, triangulation and a thick description. The findings of this research suggested that there is inadequate service delivery at PHC facilities, disrespect of patients and lack of knowledge on available services and on referral systems, which led to not utilising the available Primary Mental Health Care services. In conclusion the researcher expresses the recommendations of this research in the form of strategies. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Hierdie navorsing is daarop gemik om die gebruik van primêre geestesgesondheidsorg dienste in Dodoma, Tanzanië te bevorder. Volgens die Alma Ata verklaring van 1948 is primêre gesondheid sorg (PGS) ʼn noodsaaklike deel van die gesondheidsorg stelsel ten einde gesondheidsorg nader na mense werkplek en tuistes te neem. PGS is persoons-gesentreerd, bekostigbaar en het beter gesondheids resultate, dit word aanvaar dat PGS bydra tot die sosiale en ekonomoiese ontwikkeling van gemeenskappe. PGS fasiliteite in Tanzanië is hoofsaaklik gesondheidsentra en apteke, wat binne ʼn radius van vyf kilometere vanaf mense se woninigs is. Gedurende die 1980’s het lande geestesgesondheid integreer in die PGS stelsel in ’n poging om die geestesgesondheidstatus van mense te verbeter. Ten einde die lewering van primêre geestesgesondheid sorg (PGGS) te verbeter het Tanzanië ʼn geestesgesondheidsbeleid geformuleer en primêre gesondheidsorg werkers opgelei in geestesgesondheidsorg. As omvattende primêre gesondheidsorg ten volle implementeer is sal dit bydra tot sekuriteit, veiligheid en hoop en mense sal aanhou veg vir ”gesondheid vir almal”. Die hoofdoel van hierdie navorsingstudie was ʼn ondersoek en beskrywing ten opsigte van die redes waarom mense eerder verwysings hospitale as PGS fasiliteite nader aan hulle besoek. Die navorser het gebruik gemaak van ʼn kwalitatiewe, beskrywende kliniese etnografiese studie ten einde geestesgesondheidsorglewering te ondersoek binne die konteks van hierdie studie. Die navorser het doelgerigte nie-waarskynlikheids steekproefneming gebruik en die versadigingsvlak is bereik deur middel van data-saturasie. Data is tydens twee fases ingesamel. Fase een was gekenmerk deur deelnemende observasie ten opsigte van geestesgesondheidsorg lewering in ʼn PGS fassiliteite. Tydens fase twee het die navorser in-diepte onderhoude gevoer met famililede van die persoon wat eerder die verwysings hospitaal as PGS fasiliteit besoek het. Data analise is gedoen deur tematiese, kwalitatiewe kodering te gebruik. Betroubaarheid van die navorsing is verkry deur middel van vertrouenswaardigheid, eerbaarheid, triangulasie en in-diepte beskrywing. Die bevindings van hierdie navorsings studie suggereer die teenwoordigheid van ondoeltreffende diens lewering by PGS fasiliteite, onrespekvolle hantering van pasiënte en gebrekkige kennis rondom die beskikbare dienste en verwyssings stelsel in plek, derhalwe maak pasiënte eerder gebruik van die verwysings hospitale. Gevolglik beveel die navorser aan dat strategieë gebasseer op die resultate van hierdie navorsings geïmplementeer word.

Thesis (MBA)--Stellenbosch University, 2002. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The process of privatisation has been prompted in many instances by economic necessity and high fiscal deficits prevalent in many developing countries in the 1980s. Although addressing fiscal prudence is commonly cited as the main objective, it has been argued that the choice of enterprises for privatisation suggest that the primary motivation for privatisation has been to secure World Bank, International MonetaryFund (IMF) and donor financial support. Privatisation of state assets has been a key element of the emerging new market orthodoxy concerned with redefining the role of the state. Market theories posit that sustainable development and achievement of more dynamic economic growth in most economies requires a greater role for the private sector. Underlying this consensus is the belief that resources will be used more productively if they are transferred to the private sector. The low saving capacity has led to the realisation by African leaders through the New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) initiative that Africa's achievement of long-term sustainable development is dependent on its ability to create conducive conditions that will attract Foreign Direct Investments (FDI). Consequently, the importance of Multinational Corporations in privatisation transactions, especially now that most African countries have embarked on privatisation of utilities and infrastructure sector cannot be emphasised enough. This has, inevitably, led to conflicting objectives between the need to mobilise foreign investors, particularly in countries such as Tanzania where broadening of ownership is a primary objective of privatisation. It is important to note that Tanzania's Parastatal Sector Reform Programme was initiated lnthe context of broader policy changes initiated since the late 1980s. The privatisation programme has formed part of comprehensive economic reforms and Structural Adjustment Programmes(SAPs) prescribed by the World Bank and IMF. This study presents findings on the extent of privatisation in Tanzania, its process, challenges and the impact it has had on the economy since 1993. The study explores and identifies key factors that have led to the varying performance of privatised enterprises. Key lessons and experience from Tanzania's privatisation exercise are also outlined. The study concludeswith possible areas for further research. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Ekonomiese noodsaak en groot fiskale tekorte in menige ontwikkelende lande gedurende die 1980s het in baie gevalle aanleiding gegee tot die privatiseringsproses. Alhoewel die aanspraak van fiskale omsigtigheid gewoonlik as hoofrede aangegee word, is daar ook aangevoer dat die keuse van ondernemings vir doeleindes van privatisering daarop dui dat finansiële ondersteuning van die Wêreldbank, Internasionale Monetêre Fonds (IMF) en donateurs die eintlike motivering onderliggend aan privatisering is. Privatisering van staatsbates was 'n kern element van die opkomende nuwe markortodoksie wat betréf die heromskrywing van die staat se rol. Markteorieë postuleer dat handhaafbare ontwikkeling en die bereiking van meer dinamiese ekonomiese groei in die meeste ekonomieë 'n groter rol aandui vir die privaat sektor. Onderliggend aan hierdie konsensus is die aanname dat hulpbronne meer produktief eksploiteer sal word as dit na die privaat sektor oorgedra word. Die lae spaarkapasiteit het Afrikaleiers laat besef dat deur die New Partnership for Africa's Development (NEPAD) inisiatiewe, Afrika se langtermyn handhaafbare ontwikkeling afhanklik is van sy vermoë om bevorderlike omstandighede te skep wat direkte buitelandse investering sal lok. Die belangrikheid van multinasionale korporsies in privatiseringstransaksies, veral nou dat Afrikalande 'n poging in die werk gestel het op privatisering van gebruiksgoedere en die infrastruktuur sektor, kan derhalwe nie genoeg beklemtoon word nie. Dit is belangrik om kennis te neem van Tanzanië se Parastatal Sector Reform Programme sedert die laat 1980s wat in die konteks van breër beleidsveranderinge inisieer is.' Die privatiseringsprogram het deel gevorm van omvattende ekonomiese hervormings en strukturele aanpassingsprogramme soos voorgeskryf deur die Wêreldbank en die IMF. Bevindings oor die omvang van privatisering in Tanzanië, die proses van privatisering, uitdagings en die impak wat dit op die ekonomie gehad het sedert 1993, word in hierdie studie gebied. Hierdie studie eksploreer en identifiseer kern faktore wat tot die wisselende prestasie van geprivatiseerde ondernemings gelei het. Belangrike lesse en ervaring uit Tanzanië se privatiseringsoefening word ook toegelig. Die studie sluit af met moontlike areas vir verdere navorsing.

Thesis (MSc)--University of Stellenbosch, 2007. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The aim of the study is to ascertain whether geochemical exploration techniques can be used in the search for tanzanite deposits in the Merelani area, NE Tanzania. Previous studies have successfully demonstrated a partial extraction method (in situ soil leaching) in identifying prospective ultramafic bodies at the Rockland ruby mine in the Mangare area, Kenya, thereby demonstrating the usefulness of geochemical methods in gemstone exploration. In this study, a partial extraction as well as a whole-rock geochemical method was used to determine the applicability of these methods in prospecting for tanzanite mineralisation using different sampling media, such as soil, stream sediment and calcrete. It is possible that this geochemical approach may not be as effective as physical methods such as the separation and examination of heavy mineral suites. However, its viability needs to be evaluated due to the potential efficiency and relative logistic ease of the method. In essence the scientific method employed is to compare overburden (soils, stream sediments and calcrete) chemistry with known underlying geology, the latter having been established via diamond core drilling. A positive correlation would allow the prediction of overburden covered tanzanite mineralisation. Soil samples were collected from a trench dug perpendicular to regional lithological strike over both barren and tanzanite-bearing horizons. XRF trace element data for the soils was compared to the chemistry of the underlying lithologies. ICP-AE data derived from 1 molar HCL soil leachate (12 hour leach) and soil XRF data, from the same samples, was compared, using a mass balance index, to discern any hydromorphic dispersion of selected trace elements and to evaluate the leachate as a viable alternative to XRF analysis. In general, a good correlation exists between the soil and rock trace element data profiles over the length of the section. However, Ti- and Zr-normalised mass balance calculations show some down-hill drift, but this does not disrupt the overall pattern. The ICP-AE acid leach data show that hydromorphic dispersion is low, that the trace elements of interest (V, Cr, Ni and Cu) are hosted within non-soluble phases. Consequently, the leach technique is not a viable alternative to XRF analysis of the soils. XRF analysis of the soils was shown to be potentially useful in identifying new areas of mineralisation as the soils overlying a graphitic calc-silicate schist, that always occurs adjacent to the tanzanite mineralisation in the Merelani area, was found to be easily identifiable based on anomalous concentrations of V. An exploration concession was chosen for stream sediment sampling on the basis of the presence of large streams, of a few tsavorite mines indicating high prospectivity for tanzanite, and because of a variation in geology on the property. Tanzanite and tsavorite are cogenetic in the known tanzanite deposits. In this case the aim was to investigate the possible occurrence of tanzanite-like geochemical anomolies (i.e. the anomalous V observed in the soil chemistry investigation) could be detected in the vicinity of the tsavorite mines. Tsavorite, the gem variety of grossular garnet, also contains high concentrations of V. The samples were analysed by XRF whole-rock methods for trace element content. The data shows a number of clear positive V anomalies in the study area. The data also shows that each of the existing or abandoned mines in the area is marked by a positive V anomaly. This section of the study also demonstrated a relatively low degree of stream sediment dispersion of the trace elements of interest – most likely a function of the semi-arid climate. The fine fraction (<90μm), however was shown to be mobilised to a relatively larger degree than the coarse (180μm – 300μm) and medium (90μm - 180μm) fractions. As is predictable from the leachate analysis, factor analysis of the data shows that the trace elements are dominated by heavy mineral geochemistry and that a study in heavy mineral exploration might provide a cheaper and more viable option to those explored in this study. Calcrete samples were taken from an abandoned, 10m deep mine shaft, which was sunk through the calcrete to reach the tanzanite deposit. The shaft was sampled from the bottom, closest to the tanzanite mineralisation, to the surface to investigate the association between trace element geochemistry and proximity to the deposit. There was no vertical association between the trace element geochemistry of the calcrete and proximity to the tanzanite deposit. There was also no clear indication in the geochemistry of the calcrete of the existence of the tanzanite deposit beneath it. This further indicates the immobility of the elements of interest in this environment. This study has demonstrated that properly constrained soil and stream sediment geochemical studies may be of use in tanzanite exploration. However, it must be stressed that this is only the case if the geochemical signature of the lithological package associated with the mineralisation is unique and well known. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die doel van hierdie studie is om te bepaal of geochemiese eksplorasie tegnieke vir die soek na tanzaniet afsettings in die Merelani area, noord-oos Tanzanië, gebruik kan word. Voorige studies het gewys dat ‘n gedeeltelike ekstraksie metode (in situ grond looging) gebruik kon word om prospektiewe ultramafiese liggame by the Rockland rubyn myn in die Mangare area, Kenia te identifiseer. Hierby is gedemonstreer dat geochemiese eksplorasie metodes suksesvol in edelsteen eksplorasie toegepas kan word. In hierdie studie is ‘n gedeeltelike ekstrasksie en heel-rots geochemiese metodes gebruik om die toepaslikheid van hierdie metodes op tanzaniet eksplorasie te toets. Verskillende geologiese materiale is gemonster, naamlik grond, stroom sedimente en kalkreet. Dit is moontlik dat hierdie geochemiese benadering nie so effektief soos fisiese metodes soos swaar mineraal skeidings mag wees nie. Dit is nogtans belangrik om die toepaslikheid van hierdie metodes op tanzanite eksplorasie te toests, as gevolg van die potensiële effektiwiteit en relatiewe logistiese gemak van die metodes. Die essensie van die wetenskaplike metodiek wat in hierdie studie gebruik is, is om die geochemie van die grond, stroom sedimente en kalkreet te vergelyk met die geochemie van die onderliggende geologie wat deur middel van diamant boorwerk vasgestel is. ‘n Positiewe korrelasie sou dan dui op ‘n bedekte tanzaniet afsetting. Grond monsters is van ‘n sloot geneem wat loodreg op die strekking van die tanzaniet gemineraliseerde en ongemineraliseerde horisonne gegrawe is. XRF spoor element data van die gronde is vergelyk met die chemie van die onderliggende gesteentes. IGP-AE data wat bekom is deur die monsters met 1 molaar HCl te loog (12 uur loging) is vergelyk met XRF data van dieselfde monsters deur middel van ‘n massa balans indeks om te bepaal of daar enige hidromorfiese dispersie van sekere spoor elemente is en om die toepaslikheid van loging as ‘n alternatief tot die heel-rots metode te bepaal. In die algemeen is daar ‘n goeie korrelasie tussen die grond en rots spoor element data profiele oor die lengte van die seksie. Alhoewel, Ti- en Zr-genormaliseerde massa balans data profiele wys dat daar ‘n mate van afwaartse beweging van grond na die voet van die heuwel is, maar dat hierdie ‘n breuk in die algemene patroon vorm nie. Die IGP-AE data dui daarop dat die hidromorfiese verspreiding van spoor elemente laag is en dat die spoor elemente wat van belang is (V, Cr, Ni en Cu) in nie-oplosbare fases gesetel is. Gevolglik is die logings metode nie ‘n toepaslike alternatief tot die heel-rots XRF metode op gronde nie. XRF analises op die gronde het gewys dat die XRF metode moontlik nuttig kan wees om nuwe areas van tanzanite mineralisasie aan te dui, omdat die gronde wat ‘n grafietiese kalk-silikaat skis oorlê, wat altyd langs die tanzaniet draende horisonne voorkom, is op grond van anomale konsentrasies van V geïdentifiseer. ‘n Eksplorasie konsessie is op die basis van die teenwoordigheid van groot strome, ‘n paar tsavoriet myne wat aanduidend is van hoë prospektiwiteit vir tanzaniet is en as gevolg van ‘n variasie in geologie in die area vir stroom sediment monstering gekies. Tanzaniet en tsavoriet is kogeneties in bekende tanzaniet afsettings. In hierdie geval was die doel om te ondersoek of tanzanietagtige anomalieë (nl. die anomale konsentrasies van V wat in die ondersoek van die grond chemie opgemerk is) in die omgewing van die tsavoriet myne geïdentifiseer kan word. Tsavoriet, die edelsteen variëteit van grossulaar granaat, bevat hoë konsentrasies V. Die monsters is deur middel van die XRF heel-rots metode vir spoor elemente geanaliseer. Die data dui op ‘n paar monsters met hoë V konsentrasies in die ondersoek area. Hierdie studie het ook gedui op ‘n lae stroom sediment verspreiding van die spoor elemente van belang, heel waarskynlik is dit ‘n funksie van die semi-ariede klimaat. Die fyn fraksie (< 90μm) blyk tot ‘n groter mate as die growwer (90μm tot 180μm en 180μm - 300μm) fraksies gemobiliseer te word. Soos voorspel kan word deur die loogings analise het faktor analise gewys dat die spoor elemente deur swaar mineraal geochemie gedomineer word en dat ‘n studie op swaar minerale moontlik ‘n goedkoper en meer toepaslike eksploraise metode is as die wat in hierdie studie ondersoek is. Kalkreet monsters is van ‘n ongebruikte, 10m diep myn skag wat deur die kalkreet gesink is om by die tanzaniet gemineraliseerde horison uit te kom geneem. Monsters is van die bodem van die skag, naaste aan die tanzaniet mineralisasie, tot die oppervlak geneem om die assosiasie tussen die spoor element geochemie en afstand van die tanzaniet mineralisasie te ondersoek. Geen vertikale assosiasie tussen spoor element geochemie en die nabyheid tot die tanzaniet afsetting kon vasgestel word nie. Daar was geen duidelike aanduiding in die geochemie van die kalkreet op die onderliggende tanzanite afsetting nie. Hierdie is ‘n verdere annduiding op die nie-mobiele toestand van spoor elemente in hierdie omgewing. Hierdie studie het suksesvol gedemonstreer dat goed gedefinieerde grond en stroom sediment geochemiese studies moontlik in geochemiese eksplorasie vir tanzaniet bruikbaar kan wees. Dit is belangrik om in gedagte te hou dat dit slegs die geval is as die geochemie van die litologiese paket wat met die mineralisasie geassosieer is uniek en goed bekend is.

<p>Neck pain is a common health problem affecting the general population and it can be associated with significant activity limitation, It contributes to a number of lost work days and high costs in its management. The purpose of this study was to identify the trends in the physiotherapy management of patients suffering from episodes of neck pain at the physiotherapy department of the Muhimbiki Orthopaedic Institute (MOI), Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.</p>

Vårdrelaterade infektioner är ett globalt problem, patienter i utvecklingsländer är speciellt utsatta på grund av att många sjukhus har begränsade resurser. Därför kom idén upp att göra en studie som belyser hur sjuksköterskor hanterar handhygien med avseende att förebygga vårdrelaterade infektioner på Bulongwa Lutheran Hospital i Tanzania. Data samlades in genom en observationsstudie som varade i fyra dagar. Anteckningar från observationen skrevs ner i löpande text och analyserades genom en detaljerad innehållsanalys. I analysen växte ett antal kategorier fram, vilka resulterade i fyra övergripande teman: tvättmöjligheter, handtvätt, handskanvändning och övriga hygienaspekter. Resultatet av studien visade att sjukhusmiljön medförde vissa svårigheter för sjuksköterskorna att förhålla sig till god handhygien. Då handtvätt utfördes gjordes det med varierad noggrannhet och inträffade framförallt efter städmoment. Skyddshandskar användes vid städning och i vissa fall vid hantering av kroppsvätskor. Sjukhuset var försett med information i form av affischer för hur handhygien bör genomföras och sjuksköterskorna hyste kunskap i när tillfällen för handtvätt var aktuellt och på vilket sätt det skulle utföras. Slutsatsen som kan dras av denna studie är att bristfällig tillgänglighet av resurser troligtvis medförde en försämrad följsamhet till rekommenderade riktlinjer på Bulongwa Lutheran Hospital. / Healthcare associated infections are a global issue, patients in developing countries are especially vulnerable because of many hospitals' limited resources. The purpose of this study was to highlight how nurses manage hand hygiene for preventing healthcare associated infections at Bulongwa Lutheran Hospital in Tanzania. Data were collected during a four days observational study. Notes from the observation were written in linear form and analyzed using a detailed content analysis. The analysis brought a number of categories, which in the end resulted in four themes: places for hand washing, hand washing, glove usage and other health aspects. The results showed that the hospital environment caused a few problems for the nurses to respond to good hand hygiene. When hand washing was performed, it was made with varying accuracy and occurred most frequently after cleaning. Gloves were used during cleaning and in some cases when handling body fluids. The hospital was provided with information in the form of posters showing how hand hygiene should be performed and the nurses had knowledge of the occasions when hand washing was disclosed and the manner in which it should be performed. The conclusion to be drawn from this study is the lack of availability of resources likely led to deterioration in adherence to recommended guidelines at Bulongwa Lutheran Hospital.

The overall aim of the study is to investigate tutors’ understanding of a competence-based curriculum (CBC) and how they train the student-teachers to implement CBC in actual classroom situations in ordinary level (O-level) secondary schools in Tanzania. The study employed a qualitative research approach informed by the interpretive paradigm. It involved a total of 12 methodology tutors. The tutors were purposively and conveniently selected from four teachers’ colleges in Tanzania that offer the Diploma in Secondary Education. Data were generated through semi-structured interviews, classroom observations, and document review methods. Deductive and inductive approaches as well as the hermeneutic phenomenology tradition informed data analysis and interpretations, respectively. The findings, in brief, reveal that in certain respects tutors understand CBC in relatively different ways and thus give it different meanings. Two main understandings with regard to CBC’s meaning and intentions are identified: CBC as an application-oriented curriculum and CBC as an activity-based curriculum. In the former, CBC is understood as a curriculum emphasising the building of learners’ ability to become practical, creative, and applying the skills they receive to solving real problems in daily life and become functional in society. In the latter, CBC is understood as nothing but a curriculum emphasising learning through activities in the classroom. The key difference between the two categories of understanding is that, in the latter category, tutors are less sensitive to applying what is learned beyond classroom and subject contexts. As for reasons for the CBC introduction in Tanzania, five categories of understanding are identified, such as education being too theoretical, coping with global trends, the desire for a creative and independent generation, external influences, and poor academic performance. Interestingly, all tutors held an understanding that the teaching approaches relevant for CBC are learner-centred approaches. Moreover, the findings reveal that tutors’ instructional practices contradicted their understanding of CBC as a curriculum that basically emphasises invisible pedagogic practices. The tutors’ instructional practices could be described as more teacher-centred, theoretical, and maintaining instructions of an authoritarian, rather than a learner-centred character, as the new curricula seem to emphasise. Lecture-dominated instructions characterised by strong framing and classification are the norm. The findings of tutors’ understandings and their instructional practices can be attributed to the various contextual factors coined as administrative, pedagogical, and physical and ecological factors. The results show that contextual cues are possibly more powerful factors to explain tutors’ instructional practices and they may thus need to be accorded due attention. The tutors proposed some conditions to establish a long-term framework for tutor learning to support educational change. The tutors’ ideas are theorized in a framework constituting a combination of such conditions as reflection, community, conceptual inputs, action, and an institution dealing with education change. / Abstract (svenska) Avhandlingens övergripande syfte är att undersöka hur lärarutbildare uppfattar en kompetensbaserad läroplan (competence-based curriculum, CBC) och hur de utbildar sina lärarkandidater att realisera den i klassrumssituationer i grundskolan i Tanzania. I avhandlingen användes en kvalitativ forskningsansats grundad i ett tolkande paradigm.  Den omfattar totalt 12 metodiklärare. Urvalet av lärarutbildare gjordes medvetet från fyra lärarhögskolor i Tanzania som erbjuder ämneslärarexamen. Data genererades genom semistrukturerade intervjuer, klassrumsobservationer och metoder för dokumentgranskning. Deduktiva och induktiva tillvägagångssätt tillsammans med traditionell hermeneutisk fenomenologi har legat till grund för analys och tolkning.   Resultatet visar att lärarutbildarna i vissa avseenden skiljer sig åt i sina uppfattningar om CBC och att deras tolkning av dess innebörd skiftar. Två huvudsakliga uppfattningar om meningen och avsikterna med CBC har identifierats: dels CBC som tillämpningsinriktad läroplan, dels CBC som tillämpningsbaserad läroplan.  I den förra uppfattas CBC som en läroplan som betonar uppbyggnaden av studenternas förmåga att arbeta praktiskt och kreativt och att tillämpa de färdigheter de erhållit för att lösa verkliga problem i vardagen och fungera i samhället. Enligt den senare uppfattningen utgör CBC enbart en läroplan som betonar inlärning genom aktiviteter inom klassrummets ram. Den väsentliga skillnaden mellan de två kategorierna är att lärarutbildarna i den senare är mindre mottagliga för att tillämpa vad de lärt sig utanför klassrummets och ämnets kontexter. Vad beträffar motiven för införandet av CBC i Tanzania har fem skäl identifierats, nämligen att: utbildningen är för teoretisk, att den ska anknyta till globala trender, att den strävar efter att forma en kreativ och självständig generation, att den har påverkats utifrån, och att de akademiska prestationerna är för svaga. Intressant nog delade alla lärarutbildare uppfattningen att de undervisningsstrategier som är relevanta för CBC är de som är elevcentrerade. Dessutom visar resultaten att lärarutbildarnas undervisningspraktik motsäger deras uppfattning om CBC som en läroplan som främst betonar en osynlig pedagogisk praktik. Lärarutbildarnas undervisningspraktik kan beskrivas som mer lärarcentrerad och teoretisk med bibehållande av en auktoritativ hållning snarare än den mer elevcentrerade som de nya läroplanerna framhåller.   Normen i lärarutbildarnas praktik utgörs av en undervisning som domineras av föreläsningar inom fastställda ramar och klassifikationer. Slutsatsen beträffande lärarutbildarnas uppfattningar och undervisningspraktik kan tillskrivas olika kontextuella faktorer såsom administrativa, pedagogiska samt fysiska och ekologiska. Kontextuella aspekter förklarar eventuellt en större del av hur lärarutbildarnas undervisningspraktik ser ut, och dessa aspekter bör ges vederbörlig uppmärksamhet. Lärarutbildarna föreslog själva vissa förutsättningar för att upprätta långsiktiga ramar till stöd för deras eget lärande om att stödja förändringar i utbildningen.  Uppfattningarna hos lärarutbildarna har teoretiserats inom en ram som utgör en kombination av förutsättningar som reflektion, gemenskap, begreppstillskott, handlande, samt en organisation som kan handskas med förändringar i utbildningen.

Schools’ decisions to offer Physical Education (PE) is among the possible ways of involving students in physical activity, which has significant effects on students’ health, lifelong participation in physical activities and participation in sport. This thesis explores the factors and the ways they influence secondary schools’ decisions on whether or not to offer PE in Tanzania. The study is based on Institutional Theory, and on a social constructivist approach to knowledge generation, employing qualitative research methods, such as document analysis and interviews with different actors within and related to secondary schools. The study areas and the participants were purposefully sampled and included heads of school boards, heads of schools, PE teachers, parents and students. Document reviews were used in order to gather information concerning the regulative and normative conditions that govern schools. Four schools were more carefully studied – two that offer and two that do not offer PE. In these schools I focused on cultural conditions and local frames that could influence schools’ decisions. The findings indicate a number of factors which influence schools’ decisions whether or not to offer PE. Some of these factors are the availability of teaching and learning logistics, including facilities, equipment, qualified PE teachers, text books and teaching hours for the subject. Furthermore, the contribution of the examination for promotion purposes, the pen and paper examinations, the prioritization of other programmes and subjects, reliable support for the subject and the interest of those empowered to make decisions at school level also influence schools’ decisions concerning offering the subject. On the basis of the theory used in this study, to enable schools to make decisions favouring the offering of PE, there need to be consistency among the regulations and the normative and cultural-cognitive aspects of the institution. First, the regulative conditions are those that legalize the subject by forming the basis for schools’ decisions to offer the subject; these include governing and monitoring organs. Second, the normative conditions stipulate the logic of appropriateness for how the teaching should be approached; these include various normative directives, such as the curriculum and the syllabus. Finally, the cultural-cognitive conditions exert an influence on schools’ decisions through various perceptions held about the subject within the community. The thesis concludes with some implications of the study, indicating what changes will be needed concerning both the general institutional level and the school level. / Att skolor i Tanzania beslutar sig för att erbjuda skolämnet Idrott och hälsa (Physical Education) kan vara en förutsättning för att engagera elever i fysiska aktiviteter, vilket är betydelsefullt med tanke på deras hälsa, fortsatta fysiska aktiva liv och deltagande i idrott. Denna avhandling undersöker olika faktorers inverkan på skolors (motsvarande högstadium) ställningstagande för eller emot att erbjuda Idrott och hälsa som valbart ämne. I studien, som är baserad på nyinstitutionell teori och på ett socialkonstruktivistiskt perspektiv på kunskapsutveckling, tillämpas en kvalitativ ansats genom metoder som dokumentanalys och intervjuer med olika aktörer inom och i anknytning till ett urval av skolor. Dokumentgranskningar har gjorts som grund för en analys av vilka regulativa och normativa villkor som inverkar på skolors ställningstaganden. Därutöver har fyra skolor studerats - två som erbjuder och två som inte erbjuder Idrott och hälsa. Här har syftet varit att klarlägga vilka kulturella förhållanden och lokala ramar som inverkar på skolornas beslut om att ge eller inte ge ämnet. Vid dessa skolor har intervjuer genomförts med strategiskt utvalda personer; ordföranden i skolstyrelser, skolledare, idrottslärare, föräldrar och elever. Resultaten visar att ett antal faktorer inverkar på skolors beslut om att erbjuda eller inte erbjuda Idrott och hälsa. Några av dessa faktorer är tillgången på faciliteter och utrustning, utbildade idrottslärare och läromedel. Vidare är det betydelsefullt hur undervisningstimmar i ämnet fördelas. Negativ inverkan har förhållandet att praktiskt kunnande inte bedöms i de nationella proven, att betygen i Idrott och hälsa inte har något egentligt värde i utbildningssystemet och att andra ämnen tillmäts högre status och värde. För ett positivt ställningstagande behöver det finnas ett substantiellt stöd för ämnet och ett intresse bland dem som har befogenhet att fatta beslut på skolnivå. Alla dessa faktorer inverkar på skolornas beslut om att erbjuda ämne. Utifrån den teori som används i studien måste det finnas en samsyn och överensstämmelse mellan de regulativa, normativa och kulturella villkor som styr skolan som institution för att skolor ska kunna erbjuda Idrott och hälsa. Denna studie har visat att en sådan samsyn inte föreligger. För det första bör de regulativa villkoren ge tydlig legitimitet åt ämnet genom att etablera legala förutsättningar för skolors möjligheter att erbjuda ämnet; vilket även involverar de institutioner som övervakar utbildningen. För det andra bör de normativa villkoren såsom läroplan och kursplan, vilka styr innehållet i och formerna för undervisningen i ämnet, vara relevanta och realistiska utifrån de lokala förutsättningar som råder. Slutligen bör insatser göras för att förändra de kulturella-kognitiva förutsättningarna i form av att synliggöra värdet av ämnet Idrott och hälsa med tanke på barns och ungdomars utveckling av goda hälsovanor. Avhandlingen avslutas med några implikationer av studien, vilka indikerar vilka konkreta förändringar som kan behövas såväl på institutionell och nationell nivå som på skolnivå.

A research report submitted to the faculty of Health Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Science Degree in Epidemiology. / Antiretroviral therapy (ART) recommendations among HIV – infected pregnant women have been revised several times by the World Health Organization (WHO). Option B+, which is the latest recommendation continues to be rolled out in several countries across the globe but mostly in sub-Saharan Africa. Retention in care and adherence to antiretroviral (ARV) drugs taken by these women remains unclear in this new program. We assessed ability to stay in care (retention) and adherence to ART among HIV – infected women starting life-long treatment during pregnancy and after, at an HIV care and treatment clinic in Ifakara Tanzania. Our study provided an opportunity to understand the trends in adherence to ART and retention in care for this population. Methods We analyzed data of HIV-infected pregnant women registered and starting ART for the first time in the Kilombero and Ulanga Antiretroviral Cohort in 2009 and 2010 with a follow up period of up to two years to 2011 and 2012 respectively. Adherence was by patient self-report (PSR) and was sufficient (good) if the woman took all the prescribed pills of the issued batch or insufficient (poor) if she missed two or more pills. Women that missed two or more consecutive scheduled visits to the clinic were not retained while those that honored their scheduled visits were retained in care. Two sample t test and Wilcoxon rank sum test were used to test predictor outcome associations for continuous variables while Pearson’s and Fisher’s exact tests were used for categorical ones. Hazard ratios of each predictor variable were calculated using Cox regression. Student No: 737395 Page v Results A total of 1,282 HIV – infected women were registered in KIULARCO between 2009 and 2010. Fifty (50) were pregnant and started life-long ART upon registration in this period. Of these, 25 (50%) were registered in 2009 and the other 25 (50%) in 2010. Slightly more than half, 52.2% had CD4 cell counts above 350cells/mm3. Almost half, 49% of the women were registered in their final (third) pregnancy trimester. About 82% were in WHO stage one and 60% of all the 50 women were initiated on AZT/3TC/EFV regimen. Only 5.7% had secondary education while the rest had primary or no education at all. Of the women that reported their partners HIV state, 54.5% had partners that had never tested for HIV. Adherence for all participants was reported as sufficient (good) for the entire period the women were in care. No one had insufficient (poor) adherence. Retention in care was higher during pregnancy than after delivery. Generally, loss to follow up was 40%. About 30% were lost during pregnancy and the majority, 70% lost after they had delivered their babies. There was no evidence to prove that any of the factors studied independently predicted non retention. The most likely time to non retention was six months after delivery. Conclusions Our study, despite small sample size, shows that among women diagnosed HIV – infected and starting life-long ART during pregnancy (Option B+), adherence to ART is sufficient and retention in care similar during and after pregnancy. Counseling on the importance of staying in care especially around the first few months after delivery should be emphasized at ANC.

Cercopithecus monkeys are a species-rich radiation where interspecific mating leads to novel phenotypes due to pelage color and pattern diversity within the genus. The goals of this thesis were to (1) test a new method for studying color objectively in wild arboreal primates, and (2) apply a phenotypic hybrid index (PHI) to known individuals of a hybrid zone between C. ascanius and C. mitis in Gombe National Park, Tanzania through the use of digital photography. I scored seven pelage character states as 0 (C. mitis), 0.25 (mitis-like), 0.50 (intermediate), 0.75 (ascanius-like), or 1 (C. ascanius). Photos indicate most phenotypic hybrids express a white nose spot, but all other regions of pelage color and pattern are variable, and an assortment of hybrid phenotypes are seen at Gombe. Results indicate it is currently not possible to extend parameters for assessing color objectively with RGB values, but numerical non-RGB methods show promise. / Includes bibliography. / Thesis (M.A.)--Florida Atlantic University, 2016. / FAU Electronic Theses and Dissertations Collection