Cassava Manihot esculenta Crantz (Euphorbiaceae), is a source of food for more than 700 million people in developing countries and is cultivated in estimated global area of 18.6 million hectares with total annual production of 238 million tonnes. Diseases however, take a substantial toll of yield, with CMD being the most important disease and major constraint for cassava production in Tanzania and Africa. The disease causes an estimated loss of over US$ 14 million per annum. A study was undertaken in 2006/2007 to investigate the influence of satellite DNA molecules on severity of cassava begomoviruses and the breakdown of resistance to cassava mosaic disease (CMD) in Tanzania. The goal was to appraise the nature of resistance to CMD in indigenous and improved cassava cultivars in the presence of resistance-breaking satellites. Three specific aims were earmarked: to identify and characterize cassava mosaic virus isolates and satellite DNA molecules in major cassava growing areas of Tanzania; to screen cassava cultivars for resistance to begomoviruses in presence and absence of the satellite DNA molecules; and to determine the nature of interaction between begomovirus DNAs and Satellite DNA molecules in Nicotiana benthamiana. To achieve these aims, a survey was done in the major cassava growing areas of Tanzania to investigate occurrence of cassava mosaic begomoviruses and associated satellites namely, SatDNA-II and SatDNA-III. Stems from plants showing CMD symptoms were collected from field. The stems were re-planted in screenhouse to study more about the symptoms. Symptomatic leaves from sprouting cuttings were collected for DNA extraction to be used in two downstream assays - amplification of EACMV, ACMV, SatDNA-II and SatDNA-III by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing. In another experiment to evaluate cassava cultivars for resistance to CMD in presence of satellites, stem cuttings of the classical CMD-resistant cultivars were planted in greenhouse. Infectious clones of EACMV-TZ and EACMV-UG2 comprising both DNA-A and DNA-B components of bipartite begomoviruses (EACMV-TZ and EACMV-UG2) as well as infectious clones of SatDNA-II and SatDNA-III were bombarded onto the greenhouse cassava plants using a gene gun. Emerging disease symptoms on inoculated plants were scored using standard procedure. Total nucleic acid extraction from the inoculated plants was done and PCR was performed to amplify AC1 and βC1 genes as well as full length SatDNA-II and SatDNA-III. Southern blot analysis was performed to determine the presence of AC1, βC1, SatDNA-II and SatDNA-III on the DNA. In order to study interaction between cassava mosaic begomovirus (EACMV-TZ) and satellites, infectious clones of EACMV-TZ (DNA-A and DNA-B) and that of SatDNA-II and SatDNA-III were used. The clones (DNAs) were used to infect Nicotiana benthamiana by abrasion. Inoculated plants were covered with a plastic dome and placed in insect-free growth chamber for symptom development, which were scored on a standard scale of 1 to 5. Total DNA was extracted from the N. benthamiana leaves and used for Southern blot analysis. Results from the field survey showed that disease incidences varied from 60 to 90% in the Lake Victoria Zone and from 10 to 90% in the Eastern Zone. Cultivar Lyongo had the highest disease symptom severity in the Lake Victoria Zone while in the Eastern zone plants with high severity levels were from cvs Maiza and Tabora. In the screenhouse, some sprouted cuttings remained healthy up to 16 days after planting (DAP) and others recovered from the disease. Reversion was also observed in some cultivars. Using PCR, East African cassava mosaic Tanzania virus (EACMV-TZ) was amplified from 72.8% of tested samples while African cassava mosaic virus (ACMV) was amplified from 4.3%. Five percent of plants had dual infection of the two viruses. While ACMV was detected in samples collected from Lake Victoria, EACMV-TZ was mostly found on samples from the Eastern zone. Sequencing showed the presence of two new virus isolates: EACMV-TZ [TZ113] and EACMV-TZ [TZ108]. Seventy five percent of plants, which showed reversion of symptoms, contained SatDNA-II. It was found that full length SatDNA-II occurred in both zones, while SatDNA-III was exclusive to the Lake Zone. Multiple DNA bands were noted in PCR agarose gels, more so in SatDNA-II than SatDNA-III. For SatDNA-II, the multiple bands were more evident for samples collected from Eastern zone than for those from the Lake Zone. Using primers based on expressed sequence tags (EST-primers) for SatDNA-II (895 bp) and SatDNA-III (306 bp), genome integrated forms of the satellites were amplified from 68% and 71.17% of samples, respectively. Thirty percent of the samples showed co-infection of the satellites. While EST-primers for detection of the integrated forms of SatDNA-III produced single bands on gels, those of SatDNA-II still produced additional bands, most noteworthy being the closely spaced „double bands‟. Upon sequencing, the satellite DNA isolates showed similarity with sequences deposited in the genebank and bearing accession numbers AY836366 and AY836367 for SatDNA-II and SatDNA-III isolates, respectively. Alignment reports (Clustal W) revealed presence of GC-rich regions, TATA protein binding motifs (TATAAAT) and CAAT boxes as well as poly (A) signal. GC-rich regions in SatDNA-II were mostly trinucleotides (CGC) and hexanucleotides (CCGCCG) while in SatDNA-III the regions were trinucleotides (CGC) and pentanucleotides (CCGCC). Following biolistic inoculation, five-week scoring for the symptoms showed that plants from cvs AR37-92, CR27-24 and AR16-3 remained symptomless while plants from cv T200 were symptomatic. PCR amplification of βC1 gene five weeks post inoculation (wpi) gave PCR products in 19.6% of the samples while AC1 was amplified from only two plants. Full-length SatDNA-II was amplified from 70% of DNA samples, mostly from plants in which a begomovirus was co-inoculated with SatDNA-II. Amplification of full-length SatDNA-III from bombarded plants was unsuccessful. Amplification of integrated fragments of SatDNA-II from bombarded plants using EST-primers gave a PCR product in 93.7% of the samples. PCR amplification of the fragments from DNAs extracted from plants of cvs AR17-5 and CR27-24 previously inoculated with EACMV-TZ + SatDNA-II and EACMV-UG2 + SatDNA-III, respectively, gave closely spaced bands on 13% of the DNA samples. Amplification of integrated forms of SatDNA-III gave bands in 52.4% of samples. Probing for full-length SatDNA-II, SatDNA-III and AC1 from DNAs extracted from plants pre-inoculated with these DNAs using DIG- labeled probes gave hybridization signals in 60%, 83% and 68% of the samples, respectively. Further analysis of the signals in the context of screening suggested that cvs AR37-92 and AR37-96 were highly resistant to CMD while cv AR40-10 was susceptible. In the interaction experiment, Nicotiana benthamiana plants inoculated with an infectious clone of EACMV-TZ developed moderate CMD symptoms 7 days post inoculation (dpi) with symptoms consisting of leaf distortion and moderate stunting of plants. There were also plants which recovered from the symptoms by 35 dpi. Plants inoculated with EACMV-TZ + SatDNA-II produced similar symptoms with N. benthamiana plants developing symptoms 7 dpi that became severe by 14 dpi and without recovery even after 35 dpi. Very severe symptoms were also observed when N. benthamiana plants were inoculated with EACMV-TZ + SatDNA-II + SatDNA-III. Plants inoculated with SatDNA-II or SatDNA-III alone remained asymptomatic even after 35 dpi. Southern blot analysis showed clear increase in DNA accumulation when EACMV-TZ was inoculated together with both SatDNA-II and SatDNA-III as compared to when EACMV-TZ was inoculated alone or with SatDNA-II only and probed with EACMV-TZ. In conclusion, symptom recovery and reversion of symptoms in screenhouse plants is associated with virus resistance. There is a wide occurrence of satellites (SatDNA-II and SatDNA-III) across the sampled regions consistent with distribution of their helper cassava begomoviruses. The satellites are of a wider occurrence and diversity in Eastern zone than elsewhere in the country. The occurrence of SatDNA-III was not confined to the Lake zone as previously thought. There is evidence for satellite sequence integration into host plant genome, a further indication that the satellites are wider spread in cassava germplasm than earlier conceptualized. In few instances, both SatDNA-II and SatDNA-III isolates co-existed in the same plant though its effect on symptom enhancement could not be immediately established. The observed recovery in screening studies is thought to result from resistance introduced in the plant materials involved. Since labeled probes for satellites that were used in hybridization had been prepared from satellite sequences considered to be integrated, the hybridization signals did not depend on whether the leaf samples were picked from symptomatic or asymptomatic plants. From the study, three observations clearly suggest that SatDNA-II and SatDNA-III are biologically functional and that their effects on host plants are distinctly different. The study has demonstrated enhanced cassava begomovirus symptoms in N. benthamiana in the presence of satellite DNA molecules. This is the first detailed study undertaken to highlight the occurrence and role played by satellite DNA molecules in breaking the resistance to CMD of cassava cultivars grown in Tanzania. Keywords: Cassava mosaic disease, Cassava mosaic begomoviruses, Satellite DNA molecules, Tanzania.

<p>This is a Minor Field Study which was carried out in six schools in the Morogoro district in Tanzania. The aim of this study was to find out the values of Tanzanian teachers concerning education for environmentally sustainable development. 18 teachers have been interviewed and as a complimentary method we have observed lessons of different subjects to get a better understanding for the answers from the interviews. Our findings are that the teachers find it important to teach about both reasons and effects when it comes to environmental issues. Many teachers believed knowledge of how to live in order to avoid environmental destruction was at least as important to teach. Another conclusion is that the teachers find it important to teach about environmental issues because knowledge of the environment is necessary for development of a country. Finally we have concluded that the teachers´ values are supported by the syllabuses.</p>

<p>Samtidigt som användningen av alkohol har minskat i den utvecklade delen av världenökar den i utvecklingsländerna. Alkoholanvändningen har både kulturell och social meningmen är samtidigt relaterad till flera hälsoskadliga- och sociala problem. Studiens syfte var attbeskriva hur personer med inflytelserika uppdrag i en massajby i Tanzania uppleveralkoholanvändningen samt dess följder för såväl invånarna som för byn. Vidare var syftet attbeskriva deras upplevelser av religion och traditions betydelse för alkoholanvändningen.Kvalitativa, semistrukturerade intervjuer genomfördes utifrån en intervjuguide med ettändamålsenligt urval av tio respondenter. Data analyserades med manifest innehållsanalys. Urdataanalysen framkom resultat två teman: faktorer som påverkar alkoholanvändningen; samtfaktorer som alkoholanvändningen påverkar. De största konsekvenserna avalkoholanvändning upplevdes vara kontrollförlust med oförmåga att ta hand om sig själv ochsin familj. Dessutom upplevdes alkoholanvändningen som en olägenhet för byn genombortfall av arbetskraft vilket respondenterna upplevde som påfrestande för hela bynsutveckling. För framtiden föreslås arbete som hjälp till alternativ inkomst föralkoholförsäljande kvinnor samt tydligt ställningstagande från byledningen.</p> / <p>While the use of alcohol has declined in the developed world it is increasing indeveloping countries. Alcohol use has cultural and social meanig, at the same time its isrelated to several adverse health and social problems. This study was designed to describehow people with powerful function in a masai society in Tanzania experience alcohol use andthe consequences of alcohol use for both the individuals and for the village. Furthermore, thepurpose was to describe their experiences of religion and traditions relevancy to alcohol use.Qualitative, semi-structured interviews were carried out based on an interview guide with auseful selection of ten respondents. Data were analyzed with manifest content analysis andresults were found in two main areas: factors that influence alcohol use; and factors asconsequences of alcohol use. The biggest impact found was perceived to be control-loss withinability to take care of him- or herself and his or her family. In addition alcoholuse wasperceived as an inconvenience to the village due to loss of labor. This was percieved asstressful for the village's development. Aid to optional job for alcohol selling women andclear statement on alcohol use from the society leadership is proposed for future development.</p>

<p>The aim of this qualitative study was to explore experiences of malaria and attitudes to malaria prevention among nurses from Tanzania. Eleven nurses from three hospitals in northern Tanzania were interviewed. The analysis resulted in following categories: <em>The m</em><em>alaria situation was so severe at that time, Being both nurse and parent, Hindrances in the battle, Sharing knowledge </em>and<em> There is a change. </em>Ten out of eleven nurses had had malaria and all of them had been treated with anti-malarial drugs and many of them still had malaria regularly. They remembered times when the malaria situation was worse and the disease killed many more people. Having children resulted in constant worry. Being a nurse had advantages because they lived close to the hospitals so they could initiate early treatment and because they could afford to take preventive measures. Hindrances in the battle against malaria were other people’s lack of knowledge, poverty and difficulty to change lifestyle and environmental conditions. They were proud to be nurses and knowledge was their strength. There were geographical differences in how much hope they had for the future. The nurses in Zanzibar were the most optimistic. The nurses supported the governmental actions against malaria.</p> / <p>Syftet med denna kvalitativa studie var att undersöka vilka upplevelser sjuksköterskor från Tanzania hade av malaria och deras attityder till malariaförebyggande åtgärder. Elva sjuksköterskor från tre sjukhus i norra Tanzania intervjuades. Analysen resulterade i följande kategorier: <em>Malariasituationen var så allvarlig på den tiden, Att vara sjuksköterska och förälder, Hinder i kampen, Att dela kunskap </em>och<em> Det har blivit en förändring.</em> Tio av de elva sjuksköterskorna hade haft malaria och alla hade fått malariabehandling och flera av dem hade fortfarande malaria regelbundet. De hade minnen från när malariasituationen var värre och många fler människor dog av sjukdomen. Att vara förälder innebar konstant oro. Att vara sjuksköterska hade fördelar eftersom de bodde nära sjukhusen och därför kunde inleda snabb behandling och för att de hade råd att genomföra förebyggande åtgärder. Hinder i kampen mot malaria var andra människors okunskap, fattigdom och svårigheter att förändra livsstil. De var stolta över att vara sjuksköterskor och kunskap var deras styrka. Det fanns geografiska skillnader när det gällde deras framtidstro. Sjuksköterskorna på Zanzibar var de mest hoppfulla. Sjuksköterskorna stödde de statliga insatserna mot malaria.</p>

Samtidigt som användningen av alkohol har minskat i den utvecklade delen av världenökar den i utvecklingsländerna. Alkoholanvändningen har både kulturell och social meningmen är samtidigt relaterad till flera hälsoskadliga- och sociala problem. Studiens syfte var attbeskriva hur personer med inflytelserika uppdrag i en massajby i Tanzania uppleveralkoholanvändningen samt dess följder för såväl invånarna som för byn. Vidare var syftet attbeskriva deras upplevelser av religion och traditions betydelse för alkoholanvändningen.Kvalitativa, semistrukturerade intervjuer genomfördes utifrån en intervjuguide med ettändamålsenligt urval av tio respondenter. Data analyserades med manifest innehållsanalys. Urdataanalysen framkom resultat två teman: faktorer som påverkar alkoholanvändningen; samtfaktorer som alkoholanvändningen påverkar. De största konsekvenserna avalkoholanvändning upplevdes vara kontrollförlust med oförmåga att ta hand om sig själv ochsin familj. Dessutom upplevdes alkoholanvändningen som en olägenhet för byn genombortfall av arbetskraft vilket respondenterna upplevde som påfrestande för hela bynsutveckling. För framtiden föreslås arbete som hjälp till alternativ inkomst föralkoholförsäljande kvinnor samt tydligt ställningstagande från byledningen. / While the use of alcohol has declined in the developed world it is increasing indeveloping countries. Alcohol use has cultural and social meanig, at the same time its isrelated to several adverse health and social problems. This study was designed to describehow people with powerful function in a masai society in Tanzania experience alcohol use andthe consequences of alcohol use for both the individuals and for the village. Furthermore, thepurpose was to describe their experiences of religion and traditions relevancy to alcohol use.Qualitative, semi-structured interviews were carried out based on an interview guide with auseful selection of ten respondents. Data were analyzed with manifest content analysis andresults were found in two main areas: factors that influence alcohol use; and factors asconsequences of alcohol use. The biggest impact found was perceived to be control-loss withinability to take care of him- or herself and his or her family. In addition alcoholuse wasperceived as an inconvenience to the village due to loss of labor. This was percieved asstressful for the village's development. Aid to optional job for alcohol selling women andclear statement on alcohol use from the society leadership is proposed for future development.

This is a Minor Field Study which was carried out in six schools in the Morogoro district in Tanzania. The aim of this study was to find out the values of Tanzanian teachers concerning education for environmentally sustainable development. 18 teachers have been interviewed and as a complimentary method we have observed lessons of different subjects to get a better understanding for the answers from the interviews. Our findings are that the teachers find it important to teach about both reasons and effects when it comes to environmental issues. Many teachers believed knowledge of how to live in order to avoid environmental destruction was at least as important to teach. Another conclusion is that the teachers find it important to teach about environmental issues because knowledge of the environment is necessary for development of a country. Finally we have concluded that the teachers´ values are supported by the syllabuses.

Introduction: Physical and verbal violence within the health care sector, especially towards nurses, is a problem that have been reported from many countries worldwide.  Aim: The aim of this study was to examine workplace-related violence, and its outcomes, experienced by Tanzanian nurses in a tertiary hospital facility. Method: This was a descriptive, retrospective, cross-sectional study.  The study was carried out in patient wards in a tertiary hospital facility. 54 nurses’ working at a hospital in Tanzania with regular contacts with patients were asked to return a questionnaire, comprising 17 questions with fixed-alternative answers. Results: Of the 32 participants (59% response rate), 16 nurses reported having experienced physical or verbal violence. The most common type of violence was “verbal threat/aggression” (n = 11) and the most common source of aggression was from “patient relative/visitor” (n = 9). Conclusion: The main findings of this study confirmed that workplace-related violence towards nurses’ did occur in the hospital where the study took place. The results are supported by existing research and literature that workplace-related violence is a worldwide problem. Education and awareness regarding violence prevention as a part of nursing education could help preventing workplace-related violence. / Introduktion: Våld i fysisk eller psykisk form är inom hälso- och sjukvårdssektorn, speciellt riktat mot sjuksköterskor, ett problem som rapporterats från flertalet länder över hela världen. Mål: Målet med denna studie var att utforska arbetsplatsrelaterat våld och upplevda utfall av dessa hos sjuksköterskor på ett referenssjukhus i Tanzania. Metod: Detta var en deskriptiv, retrospektiv, tvärsnittsstudie. Den utfördes på vårdavdelningar på ett referenssjukhus. 54 sjuksköterskor med regelbunden patientkontakt som arbetade på KCMC tillfrågades om att fylla i en enkät innehållandes 17 frågor med valbara alternativ.  Resultat: Utav de 32 deltagarna (59% svarsfrekvens) hade 16 sjuksköterskor rapporterat att ha upplevt psykiskt eller fysiskt våld. Majoriteten av sjuksköterskorna rapporterade typen av våld som verbalt (n = 11) och den vanligaste källan av våld var patientens närstående (n = 9). Slutsats: De huvudsakliga fynden från denna studie var att våld riktat mot sjuksköterskor på arbetsplatsen förkom på sjukhuset där studien utfördes. Resultaten i denna studie stämmer överens med redan existerande forskning och stöder teorin om att detta fenomen är globalt. För att förhindra arbetsplatsrelaterat våld bör utbildning rörande våldsprevention ingå i sjuksköterskors utbildning.

There is a large number of children living or spending most of their day on the street. The situation for those children is harsh since they for example do not get their basic needs met. Several organizations’ work includes interventions towards street children in their programmes, but the amount still increases every year. The aim with this study is to examine and explore which challenges the OVC-program face when working with street children, and how these challenges are addressed in their daily work. A qualitative approach was chosen where observations and interviews with personnel were conducted at the OVC- program in Iringa, Tanzania. The result shows that it is hard to know if the program’s goal – to reduce the number of street children in Iringa region – is reached as it is newly implemented. However, the program’s evaluation shows a positive trend. Focus in the work to fulfil the goal is primary the personnel’s attitudes towards the children. The result also shows that an empowerment- based approach is used in the daily work. By combining control and participation the possibility to help the street children to achieve autonomy increases. One challenge in the work is that this control limits the freedom on the street that the children desire. Consequently the relation between control and participation is important to create a successful intervention. / Det finns ett stort antal barn som lever eller spenderar merparten av sin dag på gatan. Situationen för dessa barn är svår, bland annat då deras basala behov inte blir tillgodosedda. Trots att många organisationer arbetar med interventioner riktade mot gatubarn ökar antalet varje år. Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka och utforska vilka utmaningar OVC-programmet möter i arbetet med gatubarn, samt på vilket sätt dessa utmaningar hanteras i den dagliga verksamheten. En kvalitativ ansats har valts för att besvara studiens syfte, där observationer och intervjuer med personal har genomförts på OVC-programmet i Iringa, Tanzania. Resultatet visar att programmets mål, att reducera antalet gatubarn i Iringaregionen, i dagsläget är svårt att uttala sig om då det nyligen är implementerat. Dock visar programmets utvärdering på en positiv utveckling. I arbetet mot att nå målet ligger fokus främst på personalens bemötande gentemot barnen. Resultatet visar även att ett empowermentbaserat arbetssätt tillämpas i den dagliga verksamheten. Genom att kombinera kontroll och medbestämmande skapas möjligheten att hjälpa gatubarnen till ett autonomt liv. En av utmaningarna i arbetet är att denna kontroll begränsar barnens frihet som de upplever och värdesätter på gatan. Därmed är relationen mellan kontroll och medbestämmande viktig för att skapa en lyckad intervention.

No description available.

Background: Kubemenda is a word in Kiswahili and a conception that the infants‟ health will be negatively affected if the mother has sexual intercourse during the breastfeeding period. Aim: The aim of this study is to explore if nurses experience concerns among parents about sexuality during the breastfeeding period related to kubemenda. Furthermore, to investigate the nurses own perception and knowledge about kubemenda and if general information is given to the parents about breastfeeding and sexuality as well as information related to kubemenda. Method: Semi-structured qualitative interviews with open and closed questions with six nurses that worked at Muhimbili National Hospital. All the interviews were recorded, transcribed and analyzed with content analysis. Result: Kubemenda was defined as ill health in infancy caused by the mother having sexual intercourse during the breast-feeding period. This cultural belief was used as an old fashioned way of family planning. There was a non-existing relation between breastfeeding and kubemenda according to the nurses but they experienced concerns among mothers about timing of sex resumption related to kubemenda. It was hard for the nurses to manage the influence of family-members when informing and educating the mothers about sexuality. There were no guidelines as to what information they should provide regarding kubemenda. Conclusion: Kubemenda is still an existing problem in the society that is hard to eliminate due to strong cultural influence. There is an imminent need of national guidelines for health personnel as to what information they should provide regarding kubemenda. / Bakgrund: Kubemenda är ett ord på Kiswahili och innebär en uppfattning om att barns hälsa påverkas negativt om mamman har samlag under amningsperioden. Syfte: Syftet med studien var att undersöka om sjuksköterskor upplever oro bland föräldrar om sexualitet i samband med amningsperioden relaterat till kubemenda. Vidare var syftet att undersöka sjuksköterskors egen uppfattning och kunskap om kubemenda samt om generell information ges till föräldrarna angående amning och sexualitet samt information relaterat till kubemenda. Metod: Semistrukturerade intervjuer utfördes bland sex sjuksköterskor som arbetade på Muhimbili National Hospital. Intervjuerna spelades in, transkriberades och analyserades med innehållsanalys. Resultat: Kubemenda definierades som ohälsa bland spädbarn där orsaken var att mamman hade samlag under amningsperioden. Denna kulturella uppfattning användes som traditonell familjeplanering. Det fanns inget samband mellan amning och kubemenda enligt sjuksköterskorna men de upplevde oro bland mammor angående sexuell avhållsamhet relaterat till kubemenda. Sjuksköterskorna upplevde det svårt att hantera familjens kulturella inflytande på mamman när de informerade om sexualitet. Det saknades riktlinjer för vilken information som skulle ges angående kubemenda. Slutsats: Kubemenda är fortfarande ett problem i samhället som är svårt att avlägsna på grund av starkt kulturellt inflytande. Det finns ett behov av riktlinjer för vårdpersonal om vilken information som ska ges till patienter angående kubemenda.