The Ngorongoro Crater is a volcanic caldera located within the Ngorongoro Conservation Area in Tanzania. The Crater comprises a flat grassland plain surrounded by steep, bushy walls. It contains extremely high densities of animals and is ecologically the central feature of Ngorongoro Conservation Area. The management of the Ngorongoro Crater has changed significantly in recent times, with cattle being removed and fire excluded about 30 years ago. A detailed vegetation assessment was carried out in the Crater floor by Herlocker & Dirschl in 1972. Since then noticeable changes in vegetation structure and composition, with associated changes in wild herbivore numbers have occurred. The original vegetation survey was repeated in this study as accurately as possible using similar point-based techniques in order to quartify changes and form a baseline for management decision-making and future monitoring. In addition to repeating the vegetation survey, the standing biomass was estimated using a Pasture Disc Meter with associated calibration equations. Data were summarised using multivariate classification and ordination techniques in order to delineate six Homogenous Vegetation Units (HVUs) which can be used for management and management planning purposes, define transects and HVUs in terms of dominant species, describe the main species in relation to their occurrence in different associations and determine the fuel load of the standing crop. A key grass species technique was developed for rapid assessment of the Crater rangeland by the Ngorongoro Conservation Area staff who only need to be familiar with the dominant species. Bush surveys using a point centred quarter technique were conducted along transects in two distinct vegetation types, namely the Lerai Forest and Ngoitokitok Acacia xanthophloea forests and the lower caldera scrub vegetation. The data collected from these transacts were analysed to determine density and composition of the vegetation in the various height classes and the overall structure of the vegetation communities, A range monitoring system in conjunction with a controlled burning programme has been developed to provide an objective means of managing the- rangeland of the Ngorongoro Crater. Data revealed that changes have taken place in the vegetation, with a trend towards dominance by taller grasses and dominance by fewer species. Lack of fire has probably contributed to these changes. Reincorporating fire in the crater is recommended. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

Introduction Despite the existence of data in the Labour Commissioner’s Accident and Occupational Diseases Register of Tanzania, trends in the frequency of work-related fatalities and severe injuries in the construction industry, in relation to the development of policies and regulatory frameworks over the years and their effectiveness as interventions, have not been systematically evaluated. Aim The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between the regulatory framework, trends in the frequency of work-related fatalities and severe injuries among construction workers in Dar-es-Salaam Region, Tanzania, from January 1980 to December 2009. Methods The Accident Notification and Register was accessed from the Tanzanian Labour Department. Data were extracted from the register, coded and analyzed using SPSS. Chi square was used to test if injuries and fatalities in the construction industry and non-construction industries are influenced by introduction of regulatory bodies, legislation and policies during the baseline period (1980 – 1981) and subsequent time periods. Dependent variables were cases of injuries and fatalities in the construction industry and in the non-construction industries, while independent variables included duration during which the regulatory bodies, legislation and policies have been operational, age, sex, education and duration of employment. Results The introduction of regulatory bodies, legislation and policies was statistically significant in the reduction of reported cases in the construction industry across all time periods as compared to the baseline period. The adjusted risk of fatalities and work related injuries frequency in the construction industry decreased (OR 0.5; 95% CI 0.4 – 0.6 during 1998 – 2001) in almost all time periods compared to the baseline period except for the period between 1982 and 1985 (OR 1.2; 95% CI 1.0 to 1.3). Discussion This study is the first to be conducted in Tanzania. The study has shown that new governing bodies and the introduction of new policies and legislations that were introduced in the construction sector were effective in terms of reduction of reported accidents. The results of this study are similar to other studies that have conducted elsewhere. The studies that were conducted in US in 2001and 2003 to evaluate regulatory intervention on vertical falls found evidence that introduction of regulations was effective in preventing non-fatal and fatal injuries in the construction industry. Our results could have been confounded by other factors such as improvement of economic status, construction technologies and work practices. Recommendations In addition to establishment of regulatory bodies, legislation and policies to reduce the accidents, the focus should be also to change technology and practices on construction sites. A safety culture should also be emphasized / Thesis (M.Med.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

The world is undergoing rapid changes and the future is uncertain. The changes are related to modification of the landscape due to human activities, such as large and small scale irrigation, afforestation and changes to the climate system. Understanding and predicting hydrologic change is one of the challenges facing hydrologists today. Part of this understanding can be developed from observed data, however, there often too few observations and those that are available are frequently affected by uncertainties. Hydrological models have become essential tools for understanding historical variations of catchment hydrology and for predicting future possible trends. However, most developing countries are faced with poor spatial distributions of rainfall and evaporation stations that provide the data used to force models, as well as stream flow gauging stations to provide the data for establishing models and for evaluating their success. Hydrological models are faced with a number of challenges which include poor input data (data quality and poorly quantified human activities on observed stream flow data), uncertainties associated with model complexity and structure, the methods used to quantify model parameters, together with the difficulties of understanding hydrological processes at the catchment or subbasin. Within hydrological modelling, there is currently a trend of dealing with equifinality through the evaluation of parameter identifiability and the quantification of uncertainty bands associated with the predictions of the model. Hydrological models should not only focus on reproducing the past behaviour of a basin, but also on evaluating the representativeness of the surface and subsurface model components and their ability to simulate reality for the correct reasons. Part of this modelling process therefore involves quantifying and including all the possible sources of uncertainty. Uncertainty analysis has become the standard approach to most hydrological modelling studies, but has yet to be effectively used in practical water resources assessment. This study applied a hydrological modelling approach for understanding the hydrology of a large Tanzanian drainage basin, the Great Ruaha River that has many areas that are ungauged and where the available data (climate, stream flow and existing water use) are subject to varying degrees of uncertainty. The Great Ruaha River (GRR) is an upstream tributary of the Rufiji River Basin within Tanzania and covers an area of 86 000 km2. The basin is drained by four main tributaries; the Upper Great Ruaha, the Kisigo, the Little Ruaha and the Lukosi. The majority of the runoff is generated from the Chunya escarpment, the Kipengere ranges and the Poroto Mountains. The runoff generated feeds the alluvial and seasonally flooded Usangu plains (including the Ihefu perennial swamp). The majority of the irrigation water use in the basin is located where headwater sub‐basins drain towards the Usangu plains. The overall objective was to establish uncertain but behavioural hydrological models that could be useful for future water resources assessments that are likely to include issues of land use change, changes in patterns of abstraction and water use, as well the possibility of change in future climates.

The study intended to investigate conflict management capacity in local government authorities (LGAs) in Tanzania. Specific objectives embrace to: identify types of conflict; find out causes of conflict within Tanzania LGAs; find out positive and negative effects of conflict; explore mechanisms available for conflict resolution; identify the problems encountered in resolving conflict; and recommend policy options and strategies for managing conflict in LGAs. Research questions included: what types of conflict persist in the city and municipal councils in Tanzania?; to what extent does conflict lead to the strengthening or weakening of the relationship between the councilors and the permanent public officials?; and what are the available mechanisms for conflict resolution? The study was conducted in Iringa Municipal Council and Tanga City Council using a case study design. This involved both qualitative and quantitative approaches. A total number of 1012 respondents constituted a study sample. The research instruments included: observation, interviews, questionnaires, consultations with informants and informal discussions, focus group discussions and documentary reviews. The study found that conflict existed in the councils because of factors like inadequacy of funds, lack of transparency, lack of accountability and low level of education among the councillors. The available mechanisms for conflict resolution included: mediation, disciplinary committees, meetings, informal discussions, seminars and guidance and counselling. However, these mechanisms were not effectively used in managing conflict. Lastly, the respondents suggested measures for improving conflict resolution skills. They include: frequent meetings, provision of education and training, increased transparency, definition of roles through job descriptions, increased participatory decision-making, and increased sources of funds. / Public Administration / D. Litt. et Phil. (Public Administration)

The study intended to investigate conflict management capacity in local government authorities (LGAs) in Tanzania. Specific objectives embrace to: identify types of conflict; find out causes of conflict within Tanzania LGAs; find out positive and negative effects of conflict; explore mechanisms available for conflict resolution; identify the problems encountered in resolving conflict; and recommend policy options and strategies for managing conflict in LGAs. Research questions included: what types of conflict persist in the city and municipal councils in Tanzania?; to what extent does conflict lead to the strengthening or weakening of the relationship between the councilors and the permanent public officials?; and what are the available mechanisms for conflict resolution? The study was conducted in Iringa Municipal Council and Tanga City Council using a case study design. This involved both qualitative and quantitative approaches. A total number of 1012 respondents constituted a study sample. The research instruments included: observation, interviews, questionnaires, consultations with informants and informal discussions, focus group discussions and documentary reviews. The study found that conflict existed in the councils because of factors like inadequacy of funds, lack of transparency, lack of accountability and low level of education among the councillors. The available mechanisms for conflict resolution included: mediation, disciplinary committees, meetings, informal discussions, seminars and guidance and counselling. However, these mechanisms were not effectively used in managing conflict. Lastly, the respondents suggested measures for improving conflict resolution skills. They include: frequent meetings, provision of education and training, increased transparency, definition of roles through job descriptions, increased participatory decision-making, and increased sources of funds. / Public Administration and Management / D. Litt. et Phil. (Public Administration)

The thesis describes the use of stories and metaphors in pastoral counseling with orphans and vulnerable children (future: OVC) affected by HIV and AIDS in Mbeya.. It is a narrative approach study which examines and explores stories and other metaphors for the children’s resilience. A narrative approach helps pastoral counselors to use stories and metaphors such as life stories, proverbs, biblical narratives, plays, art, songs, riddles, poems, symbols and images for the healing and coping mechanism with OVC. The OVC in the midst of challenges of HIV and AIDS crisis can find a healing and coping mechanism in Mbeya. A narrative approach with the use of stories and metaphors in pastoral counseling and in practical theology can be used and applied in responding to issues surrounding the OVC. It is an approach that can help the OVC find their resilience and grow into a more meaningful life, the life of wholeness. Methodologically, case studies, focus groups and interviews have been used to collect the data which was analyzed and interpreted in detail to reach the objectives of the study. I explored and discussed in detail the use of narratives, stories, and metaphors in case studies and focus groups with OVC in Mbeya. Finally, an integrative narrative model was established to build up a practical method for practical theology and counseling in dealing with the challenges which the OVC are facing. The model came as a result of the analysis and interpretation of the case studies, focus groups and interviews conducted in the field research. It describes a life cycle of a person, the events and experiences one passes through, which will ultimately help a person to grow and mature to become whole or an integrative being. / Practical Theology / D. Th. (Practical Theology, Specialisation Pastoral Therapy)

The thesis describes the use of stories and metaphors in pastoral counseling with orphans and vulnerable children (future: OVC) affected by HIV and AIDS in Mbeya.. It is a narrative approach study which examines and explores stories and other metaphors for the children’s resilience. A narrative approach helps pastoral counselors to use stories and metaphors such as life stories, proverbs, biblical narratives, plays, art, songs, riddles, poems, symbols and images for the healing and coping mechanism with OVC. The OVC in the midst of challenges of HIV and AIDS crisis can find a healing and coping mechanism in Mbeya. A narrative approach with the use of stories and metaphors in pastoral counseling and in practical theology can be used and applied in responding to issues surrounding the OVC. It is an approach that can help the OVC find their resilience and grow into a more meaningful life, the life of wholeness. Methodologically, case studies, focus groups and interviews have been used to collect the data which was analyzed and interpreted in detail to reach the objectives of the study. I explored and discussed in detail the use of narratives, stories, and metaphors in case studies and focus groups with OVC in Mbeya. Finally, an integrative narrative model was established to build up a practical method for practical theology and counseling in dealing with the challenges which the OVC are facing. The model came as a result of the analysis and interpretation of the case studies, focus groups and interviews conducted in the field research. It describes a life cycle of a person, the events and experiences one passes through, which will ultimately help a person to grow and mature to become whole or an integrative being. / Philosophy, Practical and Systematic Theology / D. Th. (Practical Theology, Specialisation Pastoral Therapy)

Tanzania is among the poorest countries in the world, with most of its population living in rural areas. Like most other developing countries, rural households' access to financial services is very limited. The government has adopted series of economic reform measures since mid-1980s that include financial liberalization. Liberalization of the financial sector facilitated participation of private financial institutions, restructuring of public financial institutions and privatization, elimination of interest rate controls, credit allocation and targeting. In addition, the role of the Bank of Tanzania in supervision and regulation of financial institutions was strengthened. Following the privatization of the financial sector, the number of financial service providers increased and diversified, which include commercial banks, development banks, insurance and social security funds, and capital markets. The role of the central bank was re-defined and strengthened in terms of price stability, supervision and regulation. Although there is an increase in financial sector service providers and products, rural households' access to financial services did not improve. To the contrary access to formal financial services is diminishing significantly, hence making poverty reduction initiatives more difficult. This study analyzed constraints to access to rural financial services, examined its impact on rural households' livelihoods, and recommended appropriate financial sector development strategies. The data for the study were collected from various sources - both primary and secondary. Primary data were collected from selected thirteen villages in Babati and government offices in the district through interviews, focus group discussions, questionnaire, and observation. Secondary information was gathered from documentary sources in the form of reports, records and review of literature. A combination of analytical tools was used - qualitative and quantitative. The study observed that history of rural finance in Tanzania is associated with colonialization of Tanganyika. The German colonial administration was the first to introduce establishment of modern commercial banking in the country in 1905 when the Deutsche Ostafrikanische bank opened a branch in Dar es Salaam. The British colonial administration, after the defeat of Germans in World War I, promoted establishment of commercial banks in Tanganyika in order to support commercialization of the economy. Consequently, German banks were replaced and commercial bank branches were established in other parts of the country. The independent government undertook massive re-organization of the financial sector and much attention was put on agricultural credit. Agricultural credit was organized through specialized agricultural credit organizations that corroborated with state owned commercial banks. However, the co-operative movement were assigned important role in credit administration on the ground as they are closer to the beneficiaries. The financial structure after independence up to the 1990s, when reforms were ushered in, is characterized by state owned financial institutions with pervasive interference. Credit was directed on the basis of the government priorities with little regard to credit worthiness analysis. The National Bank of Commerce (NBC) and Co-operative and Rural Development Bank (CRDB) were the dominant banks that implemented the government monetary policy. Emphasis was put on credit and savings mobilization was neglected. The CRDB operated mostly on managing donor funds meant for rural development. Liberalization of the financial sector was introduced through the Banking and Financial Institutions Act (BAFIA) of 1991 to address the weaknesses observed in the financial sector. It was envisaged to improve access to financial services through enhanced competition, increased and diversified financial products and providers, and improved integration of the financial system. However, assessment of the impact of the financial liberalization has mixed results. While there are distinct expansion in financial institutions, products and services; these are more concentrated in urban areas and accessed mostly by wealthy clients. Consequently, rural households' access to finance is diminishing. On the other hand, most financial institutions continue to employ traditional banking approaches - of insistence on collateral, preference for less risky category of clients, bias towards large loans, and bureaucratic procedures in providing loans. Besides, there are limited initiatives in product innovation, design of appropriate delivery mechanisms, and high interest rates spreads that discouraged potentials borrowers and depositors. As a result of poor access to financial services, most households have strengthened self-financing mechanisms through the informal arrangements. Although, the semi-formal - especially member based financial institutions and some Financial NGOs (FiNGOs) are attempting to correct the financial imbalances, their outreach, products and services are still limited. While there are improvement in supervision and regulation of the financial sector, it must be noted that prudential regulation and supervisions as part of the financial infrastructure if not carefully used, will undermine the efficiency of the financial market. The study concludes that rural households need a variety of financial products that include savings facilities, loans, insurance, leasing, and means of transfer payments. The degree of demand for these products is, however, determined by household's level of poverty, household size, level of education and skills, life cycle needs, and local market opportunities. However, financial sector reforms had little impact on households' livelihoods. Its implementation is associated with an increase in inequalities and poverty. Besides, there is a reduced funding as well as investment in agriculture, which forms the key sector of the economy. Consequently, the performance of the agricultural sector has been declining although its contribution to GDP is still significant. Assessing the supply and demand for rural financial services, it is concluded that rural areas are hardly served by banks hence limiting access to financial services. Prior to liberalization, government owned financial institutions provided limited financial services to rural areas organized through co-operatives and specialized credit agencies. CRDB was responsible for organization of credit for farm inputs, while NBC provided crop finance. In addition, CRDB also facilitated rural development programmes through donor funds. With the liberalization of the financial sector - co-operatives have collapsed, development banks are no longer active, and commercial banks have withdrawn from serving rural areas, thus creating a "supply gap" that is being replaced by informal finance. Furthermore, the study observed that demands for financial services is determined by age of the borrower, household size, and distance from a financial institution, the cost of borrowing that include loan transaction costs plus interest rate charged, bank procedures and conditions, policy and regulatory framework and institutional and infrastructural conditions. The study recommends the following: (i) Continued efforts for establishment of supportive macroeconomic and sectoral policies - financial, fiscal, monetary & rural development - and legal and regulatory framework that facilitates the growth of the rural financial markets, (ii) A facilitative intervention by the government in the development of the financial markets that addresses the national poverty reduction development objective through economic growth is required. The desired actions are those that focus on improvement in demand for financial services, reduced bureaucratic banking conditions, reduced transactions costs, improved infrastructure, and reduction of other structural bottlenecks limiting access to financial services, (iii) Development of appropriate financial institutions and products relevant for the rural sector requires government guidance through policy, development of appropriate financial infrastructure (legal, regulation and information), and incentive mechanisms. (iv) Intervention by the government in institutional and infrastructural development is required so as to facilitate the functioning of markets. There must be purposive investment strategy that supports development of the public infrastructure - such as transport and communication, electricity, security system, and research and development. Institutional development - judiciary machinery, credit bureaus, and property rights and business registry are required. Furthermore, training and capacity building so as to change peoples' mindsets concerning loans and savings mobilization, and (v) There is a need for building up a "New Role" for financial institutions. Financial institutions need to revisit their financial terms and conditions in favor of the development of RFMs, especially in terms of bank conditions, interest rate spreads, demand for collateral, and requirements for addressing the needs of the poor and rural population, Furthermore, financial institutions need to become more innovative in developing new products and services, improvement in organization of rural financial institutions, delivery mechanisms, and establishment of the institutional framework for integration of MFIs into the national financial system in the country. The following areas require further studies: (i) development of realistic rural development strategy that covers, among others, the development of the financial markets, (ii) institutionalization of the rural property ownership rights in order to establish how these can be used productively, through say mortgage, collateral, and/or sale for cash income, and (iii) Mechanisms for enforcement of loan repayments in rural areas - especially the lessons from informal operators. Experiences have shown that under informal credit arrangements, there are few default cases as opposed to formal commercial credit practices. / Development Studies / D. Litt. et Phil. (Development Studies)

Thesis (MDF)--Stellenbosch University, 2012. / The provision of infrastructure in developing countries is traditionally a preserve of government discharged through state-owned monopolies. This arrangement enables the government to charge tariffs below cost recovery as a way of protecting consumers. Unfortunately, the state utilities are generally run inefficiently, relying on the public budget for both capital and operational expenditure. Private sector players have gradually started to engage in the provision of infrastructure in recent years. Working alone or in co-operation with government, these players have offered a viable alternative for securing financial resources by using well-structured project finance structures and expertise for efficient delivery of services, such as roads, water, electricity and hospitals. The private sector participation has resulted in fiscal relief as funding sources are broadened to include domestic and offshore capital markets. It has also been accompanied by necessary sector reforms, such as legislative amendments to protect private property, allowing private players to invest in the respective infrastructure domains. Consumers‟ perceptions have been mixed, largely due to resultant higher costs of services. In Tanzania, the Tanzania Electricity Supply Company (TANESCO), a vertically-integrated state monopoly, is responsible for generation, transmission, distribution and retailing of electricity. As sole provider, TANESCO has woefully failed to serve the estimated demand of about 1 200MW. Lack of adequate funding for new capital investment and maintenance of the existing network has seriously curtailed output to just over 500MW – less than half of installed capacity. This situation has been compounded by drought on the predominantly hydro-based generation. Transmission losses have also worsened electricity delivery. The result is that only 14 percent of the urban and about two percent of the rural population had electricity access as at 2010. Sector reforms introduced in the 1990s allowed independent power producers (IPPs) to set up fuel and gas-fired generation facilities and selling output to TANESCO under Power Purchase Agreements. Worsening electricity shortages have forced the Ministry of Energy and Minerals to engage more IPPs on an emergency basis at very exorbitant feed-in tariffs. Other smaller-scale private generators have also entered the deregulated generation sector using the regulatory framework set up by the Energy and Water Utilities Regulatory Authority (EWURA). Various generation technologies are used and off-grid installations have enabled potential consumers beyond the national grid to have access. This study presents perceptions on challenges faced by private sector investors and financiers in participating in electricity generation. The findings highlight the apparent lack of appetite by financiers to underwrite long-term infrastructure projects. Furthermore, the capital markets are not developed sufficiently to meet the capital needs of private investors who see opportunity in the largely unserved electricity market. The results of the study help to show that the challenges of providing sufficient and affordable electricity in Tanzania cannot be addressed within the context of current macro-environmental circumstances. Specific policy guidelines are required to enhance the level of development of the financial market, facilitate private sector access to the required debt capital, and improve the tariff structure to attract investments in the electricity generation segment.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the status and practice of information literacy in Tanzania's four universities with the primary intention of establishing the foundation for appropriate strategies that could be adopted when introducing or developing information literacy programmes into higher learning institutions in Tanzania that are systematic, effective and capable of fostering adequate information literacy knowledge and skills in students. Information literacy is a set of skills and knowledge that allows people to find, evaluate, and use the information that they need. These skills also help people filter and synthesise the information they encounter so that they can use that which is useful and meaningful. Information literacy knowledge and skills are the necessary tools that help people successfully find their way in the present and future field of information. The importance of information literacy is based on the fact that technological developments of the 21st century require that people in all walks of life acquire information literacy knowledge and skills so as to be able to adjust, cope, work and function compatibly with various changes that are taking place in all aspect of daily life and human activities. In the academic arena information literacy enables students to become competent and independent learners because they acquire the knowledge and skills to know their own information needs and an ability to manage the tools of technology gives access to relevant information, for communication and to problem solving. Tanzania is a developing country, where the school library system has a very poor infrastructure in terms of resources. This situation denies school leavers the opportunity to acquire appropriate knowledge and the skills required to use various information resources. Systematic information literacy intervention at all educational levels is vital not only for learning independence and academic performance but also for life-long learning skills. The data for this study were collected from Sokoine University of Agriculture, University of Dar-Es-Salaam, Iringa University College and Saint Augustine University of Tanzania. Self-administered questionnaires were used together with data from 358 teaching staff, 25 librarians and 664 students and interviews were conducted with three Deputy Vice Chancellors (Academic), 12 Faculty Deans, two Library Directors and one Library Head. In addition data were also collected through observation. The study found that although the four universities' librarians provide some form of information literacy instruction, using a combination of methods that include orientation, lectures, hands-on practice and web-page, this instruction was not effective in fostering the required information literacy knowledge and skills in students. Thus the study established that most students lack adequate skills in the use of both electronic and non-electronic information sources. The study also established a number of impediments that are linked to the non-effectiveness of information instruction. The researcher considered the lack of an explicit information literacy policy, to provide guidance and directives on how information literacy activities should be conducted, as the main barrier to information literacy activities in the universities studied. Lack of an information literacy policy led to the existing information literacy programmes not being allocated official time within the university timetable, hence they were being attended by students on a voluntary basis. Lack of a formalised programme and inadequate resources are also among the factors that contribute to the ineffectiveness. However, the study found that the potential opportunity for conducting information literacy in a more systematic and effective manner can be created through involving teaching staff in infoffi1ation literacy activities and integrating information literacy into the mainstream curriculum. / SUA-NORAD.