Abstract Background: Confirmation bias is the tendency to search for evidence that confirms a person’s preconceptions. Confirmation bias among software testers is their tendency to validate the correct functioning of the program rather than testing it to reveal errors. Psychology literature suggests that time pressure may promote confirmation bias because time pressure impedes analytical processing of the task at hand. Time pressure is perceived negatively for its effects in software engineering (SE), therefore, its effect on confirmation bias may exacerbate software quality. Objective: We aim to examine confirmation bias among software testers. Additionally, we examine the effect of time pressure on confirmation bias and how time pressure affects the testers’ perception of the performance. We also question what other antecedents to confirmation bias exist in software testing and how they lead to it. Method: We first examined the state of the art research on cognitive biases in SE using systematic mapping. Then, we empirically examined the feasibility of using students in further experiments. An experiment with 42 students (novice professionals) investigated the manifestation of confirmation bias and whether time pressure promotes it. Another experiment with 87 novice professionals examined the perception of the performance of software testers under time pressure. A grounded theory study based on the interview-data of 12 practitioners explored other antecedents to confirmation bias in software testing and how they lead to it. Results: Time pressure emerged as a major antecedent to confirmation bias in the grounded theory. Testers prefer to validate the correct functioning of the program under time pressure. However, time pressure could not significantly promote confirmation bias among testers. Software testers significantly manifest confirmation bias irrespective of time pressure. The perception of performance is also sustained irrespective of time pressure. Conclusion: Testers should develop self-awareness of confirmation bias and improve their perception of performance to improve their actual testing. In the industry, automated testing may alleviate confirmation bias due to time pressure by rapidly executing the test suites. / Tiivistelmä Tausta: Vahvistusharha tarkoittaa taipumusta hakea ennakko-odotuksia vahvistavaa todistusaineistoa. Ohjelmistotestaajien vahvistusharha tarkoittaa taipumusta varmistaa ohjelmiston oikea toiminta mieluummin kuin hakea siitä virheitä. Psykologinen tutkimus esittää, että aikataulupaine voi lisätä vahvistusharhaa heikentämällä työn analyyttista tarkastelua. Aikataulupainetta pidetään ohjelmistotekniikan soveltamiseen kielteisesti vaikuttavana asiana, minkä johdosta sen vaikutus vahvistusharhaan voi heikentää ohjelmiston laatua. Tavoite: Tarkastelimme ohjelmistotestaajien vahvistusharhaa tutkimalla aikataulupaineen vaikutusta vahvistusharhaan ja testaajien käsitykseen testauksen tehokkuudesta. Lisäksi kysymme, mitkä muut tekijät johtavat ohjelmistotestauksen vahvistusharhaan, ja millä tavoin. Menetelmä: Ensiksi tarkastelimme ohjelmistotekniikan kognitiivisten harhojen viimeisintä tutkimusta systemaattista kirjallisuuskartoituksella. Sitten tutkimme kokeellisesti, miten yliopisto-opiskelijat soveltuvat käytettäväksi tutkimusjoukkona vahvistusharhan kokeellisessa tutkimuksessa. Kokeellinen tutkimus, johon osallistui 42 opiskelijaa (aloittelevaa ammattilaista), tarkasteli vahvistusharhan lisääntymistä aikataulupaineen vaikutuksesta. Toinen kokeellinen tutkimus, johon osallistui 87 aloittelevaa ammattilaista, tarkasteli ohjelmistotestaajien käsitystä testauksen tehokkuudesta aikataulupaineen alla. Kahdeltatoista ammattilaiselta haastattelemalla kerätystä tutkimusaineistosta tarkasteltiin ankkuroidun teorian menetelmällä muiden mahdollisten tekijöiden vaikutusta vahvistusharhaan. Tulokset: Ankkuroidussa teoriassa aikataulupaine osoittautui merkittäväksi vahvistusharhan tekijäksi. Ammattimaiset ohjelmistotestaajat haluavat mieluummin validoida ohjelmiston oikean toiminnan aikataulupaineessa. Toisessa kokeellisessa tutkimuksessa aikataulupaine ei kuitenkaan lisännyt merkittävästi testaajien vahvistusharhaa, vaan testaajien vahvistusharha ilmeni merkittävästi aikataulupaineista riippumatta. Myös käsitys työn tehokkuudesta säilyi riippumatta aikataulupaineesta. Johtopäätös: Ohjelmistotestaajien on syytä kehittää tietoisuuttaan vahvistusharhasta ja parantaa käsitystään työn tehokkuudesta parantaakseen testaustyötä. Teollisuudessa automaattinen testaus voi lieventää aikataulupaineen aiheuttamaa vahvistusharhaa nopeuttamalla testisarjoja.

En av de stora uppgifterna med en verksamhet är att anpassa sig efter omgivningen för att leverera den efterfrågade produkten eller tjänsten. Därmed finner verksamheter behovet av att anpassa arbetssättet internt för att öka konkurrenskraften samt hitta lösningar till problem som uppstår i samband med marknadsförändringar. Begreppet agilitet skapades i början av 2000-talet i samband med det teknologiska genombrottet och syftar till att organisera samt strukturera arbetssättet inom verksamheter. För att finna en djupare mening i fenomenet handlar denna uppsats om hur agila verksamheter inför agila arbetsmetoder och hur dessa arbetsmetoder fungerar i praktiken. Undersökningen baseras på datainsamling i form av djupintervjuer samt vetenskapliga artiklar och de framtagna teoretiska ramverken. Studien innehåller även en tydlig koppling till IT-baserade arbetssystem inom verksamheter, vilket är den viktigaste förutsättningen för verksamheter i dagens samhälle. Studien bidrar med ett resultat där anställda upplever olika förändringar i utförandet av arbetet genom att verksamheten inför agila arbetsmetoder. / One of the primary purposes of an organization is to adapt to its environment in order to deliver the demanded product or service. Consequently, organizations find the need to adapt their internal processes to increase competitiveness and find solutions to problems arising from market changes. The concept of agility emerged in the early 2000s in conjunction with the technological boom and aims to organize and structure work methods within organizations. To delve deeper into this phenomenon, this essay explores how agile organizations adopt agile work methods and how these methods function in practice. The research is based on data collection through in-depth interviews and scientific articles, within a theoretical framework. The study also includes a clear connection to information systems within the organization, which are crucial prerequisites for businesses in today's society and organization. The study contributes with a result where employees experience different changes in the performance of the work through the introduction of agile working methods.

Objetivo: analisar a organização do trabalho no desenvolvimento das Lesões por Esforços Repetitivos/ Distúrbios Osteomusculares Relacionados ao Trabalho - LER/DORT, em taquígrafos de ambos os sexos, de duas Casas Parlamentares na região metropolitana de São Paulo. Método: estudo qualitativo; os instrumentos de coleta utilizados foram: entrevista individual, observação do trabalho e questionário de saúde e trabalho, composto de questões de identificação, estilo de vida, dados ocupacionais e de morbidade e o Questionário Nórdico de Sintomas Osteomusculares. Resultados: Identificaram-se fatores biomecânicos como prováveis causas de LER/DORT, tais como: manutenção de postura estática e movimentos repetitivos de digitação / manuseio de gravador; e aspectos da organização do trabalho, como por exemplo: divisão de tarefas por ciclos de tempo, pessoal reduzido, horários e pausas irregulares. Os taquígrafos relataram: exigências física, cognitiva, sensorial e psicológica do treinamento/ trabalho, pressão temporal, receio de errar, sobrecarga de trabalho nos períodos de pico e desgaste motivado pela disponibilidade integral de horários. Os trabalhadores identificaram como causas de LER/DORT: as dimensões temporal, ambiental, e da ação do trabalho, bem como aspectos individuais e condições fora do trabalho. Conclusões: (a) A taquigrafia parlamentar caracteriza-se pela fragmentação das tarefas, ritmo imposto e prazos rígidos, semelhante a uma linha de montagem; (b) aspectos da organização do trabalho podem influenciar a sobrecarga biomecânica e o aumento no tempo de exposição ao risco para LER/DORT entre taquígrafos; (c) para serem eficazes, medidas preventivas devem considerar os aspectos biomecânicos, bem como as características da organização do trabalho e a participação dos trabalhadores. / Objective: to analyze some of the relevant aspects of work organization in the development of Work Related Musculoskeletal Disorders- WRMSD among male and female shorthand typists, in two parliamentary institutions in the metropolitan area of the city of São Paulo. Method: qualitative study; the instruments used to collect data have been: individual interview, observation of the work and questionnaire of health and work, composed of identification, occupational and morbidity questions and the Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire. Results: Biomechanical factors such as the maintenance of static posture and the repetitive movements of typing / handling the voice recorder have been identified as probable WRMSD causes; as well as some aspects of work organization, such as: task division in time cycles, reduced staff, irregular schedules and breaks. The shorthand typists have spoken about: physical, cognitive, sensorial and psychological requirements of training/work, time pressure, fear of making mistakes, work overload in rush periods and strain caused by the full-time availability schedule. The workers have come up with WRMSK causes: time, environmental and action dimensions of their work, as well as individual aspects and extra-work conditions. Conclusions: (a) The parliamentary shorthand typing work is characterized by divided tasks, rigid work rhythm and deadlines, like a factory assembly-line; (b) several elements of work organization may influence the biomechanical overload and it may also increase the exposure to WRMSD risk among shorthand typists; (c) effective preventive measures must consider the biomechanical elements, as well as the aspects of organization of the work and workers’ participation.

Objetivo: analisar a organização do trabalho no desenvolvimento das Lesões por Esforços Repetitivos/ Distúrbios Osteomusculares Relacionados ao Trabalho - LER/DORT, em taquígrafos de ambos os sexos, de duas Casas Parlamentares na região metropolitana de São Paulo. Método: estudo qualitativo; os instrumentos de coleta utilizados foram: entrevista individual, observação do trabalho e questionário de saúde e trabalho, composto de questões de identificação, estilo de vida, dados ocupacionais e de morbidade e o Questionário Nórdico de Sintomas Osteomusculares. Resultados: Identificaram-se fatores biomecânicos como prováveis causas de LER/DORT, tais como: manutenção de postura estática e movimentos repetitivos de digitação / manuseio de gravador; e aspectos da organização do trabalho, como por exemplo: divisão de tarefas por ciclos de tempo, pessoal reduzido, horários e pausas irregulares. Os taquígrafos relataram: exigências física, cognitiva, sensorial e psicológica do treinamento/ trabalho, pressão temporal, receio de errar, sobrecarga de trabalho nos períodos de pico e desgaste motivado pela disponibilidade integral de horários. Os trabalhadores identificaram como causas de LER/DORT: as dimensões temporal, ambiental, e da ação do trabalho, bem como aspectos individuais e condições fora do trabalho. Conclusões: (a) A taquigrafia parlamentar caracteriza-se pela fragmentação das tarefas, ritmo imposto e prazos rígidos, semelhante a uma linha de montagem; (b) aspectos da organização do trabalho podem influenciar a sobrecarga biomecânica e o aumento no tempo de exposição ao risco para LER/DORT entre taquígrafos; (c) para serem eficazes, medidas preventivas devem considerar os aspectos biomecânicos, bem como as características da organização do trabalho e a participação dos trabalhadores. / Objective: to analyze some of the relevant aspects of work organization in the development of Work Related Musculoskeletal Disorders- WRMSD among male and female shorthand typists, in two parliamentary institutions in the metropolitan area of the city of São Paulo. Method: qualitative study; the instruments used to collect data have been: individual interview, observation of the work and questionnaire of health and work, composed of identification, occupational and morbidity questions and the Nordic Musculoskeletal Questionnaire. Results: Biomechanical factors such as the maintenance of static posture and the repetitive movements of typing / handling the voice recorder have been identified as probable WRMSD causes; as well as some aspects of work organization, such as: task division in time cycles, reduced staff, irregular schedules and breaks. The shorthand typists have spoken about: physical, cognitive, sensorial and psychological requirements of training/work, time pressure, fear of making mistakes, work overload in rush periods and strain caused by the full-time availability schedule. The workers have come up with WRMSK causes: time, environmental and action dimensions of their work, as well as individual aspects and extra-work conditions. Conclusions: (a) The parliamentary shorthand typing work is characterized by divided tasks, rigid work rhythm and deadlines, like a factory assembly-line; (b) several elements of work organization may influence the biomechanical overload and it may also increase the exposure to WRMSD risk among shorthand typists; (c) effective preventive measures must consider the biomechanical elements, as well as the aspects of organization of the work and workers’ participation.

<p>Förmågan att prestera under akut eller kraftig stress är en förutsättning för en del yrken. Forskningsresultaten gällande hur stress påverkar prestation pekar åt olika håll. Denna studie undersökte sambandet mellan fysiologisk arousal och kognitiv problemlösningsförmåga under stress. Trettiotvå polisstudenter testades på Ravens test av flytande intelligens APM set II både före och efter att antingen ha sprungit i tjugo minuter eller haft en självskyddslektion på ca fyrtio minuter. Resultaten från en mixed ANOVA för beroende mätningar visade på en signifikant interaktionseffekt (F (30) = 6,547, p < 0,05) – en ökning i prestationen hos självskyddsgruppen med arton procent och en minskning med femton procent hos löpningsgruppen. En möjlig förklaring till skillnaden i prestation kan vara att självskyddsträningen ger upphov till en annorlunda mental och kognitiv aktivering än löpningen. Graden av arousal kunde vidare inte förklara skillnaderna mellan grupperna och begreppets användbarhet i detta sammanhang kan kanske ifrågasättas.</p>

Förmågan att prestera under akut eller kraftig stress är en förutsättning för en del yrken. Forskningsresultaten gällande hur stress påverkar prestation pekar åt olika håll. Denna studie undersökte sambandet mellan fysiologisk arousal och kognitiv problemlösningsförmåga under stress. Trettiotvå polisstudenter testades på Ravens test av flytande intelligens APM set II både före och efter att antingen ha sprungit i tjugo minuter eller haft en självskyddslektion på ca fyrtio minuter. Resultaten från en mixed ANOVA för beroende mätningar visade på en signifikant interaktionseffekt (F (30) = 6,547, p &lt; 0,05) – en ökning i prestationen hos självskyddsgruppen med arton procent och en minskning med femton procent hos löpningsgruppen. En möjlig förklaring till skillnaden i prestation kan vara att självskyddsträningen ger upphov till en annorlunda mental och kognitiv aktivering än löpningen. Graden av arousal kunde vidare inte förklara skillnaderna mellan grupperna och begreppets användbarhet i detta sammanhang kan kanske ifrågasättas.

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