Hydrogen embrittlement (HE), which results in an unpredictable failure of metals, has been a major limitation in the design of critical components for a wide range of engineering applications, given the near-ubiquitous presence of hydrogen in their service environments. However, the exact mechanisms that underpin HE failure remain poorly understood. It is known that hydrogen, when free to diffuse in these materials, can tend to concentrate at a crack tip front. In turn, this facilitates crack propagation. Hence one of the proposed strategies for mitigating HE is to limit the content of freely diffusing hydrogen within the metal atomic lattice via the introduction of microstructural hydrogen traps. Further, it is empirically known that the introduction of finely-dispersed distribution of nano-sized carbide hydrogen traps in ferritic steel matrix can improve resilience to HE. This resilience has been attributed to the effective hydrogen trapping of the carbides. However, conclusive atomic-scale experimental evidence is still lacking as to the manner by which these features can impede the movement of the hydrogen. This lack of insight limits the further progress for the optimisation of the microstructural design of this type of HE-resistant steel. In order to further understand the hydrogen trapping phenomenon of the nano-sized carbide in steel, an appropriate characterisation method is required. Atom probe tomography (APT) has been known for its powerful combination of high 3D spatial and chemical resolution for the analysis of very fine precipitates. Furthermore, previous studies have shown that the application of isotopic hydrogen (²H) loading techniques, combined with APT, facilitates the hydrogen signal associated to fine carbides to be unambiguously identified. However, the considerable experimental requirements as utilised by these previous studies, particularly the instrumental capability necessary for retention of the trapped hydrogen in the needle-shaped APT specimen, limits the study being reproduced or extended. In this APT study, a model ferritic steel with finely dispersed V-Mo-Nb carbides of 10-20 nm is investigated. Initially, existing specialised instrumentation formed the basis of a cryogenic specimen chain under vacuum, so as to retain loaded hydrogen after an electrolytic charging treatment for APT analysis. This work confirms the importance of cryogenic treatment for the retention of trapped hydrogen in APT specimen. The quality of the obtained experimental data allows a quantitative analysis on the hydrogen trapping mechanism. Thus, it is conclusively determined that interior of the carbides studied in this steel acts as the hydrogen trapping site as opposed to the carbide/matrix interface as commonly expected. This result supports the theoretical investigations proposing that the hydrogen trapping within the carbide interior is enabled by a network of carbon vacancies. Based on the established importance of the specimen cold chain in these APT experiments, this work then successfully develops a simplified approach to cryo-transfer which requires no instrumental modification. In this approach there is no requirement for the charged specimen to be transferred under vacuum conditions. The issue of environmental-induced ice contamination on the cryogenic sample surface in air transfer is resolved by its sublimation in APT vacuum chamber. Furthermore, the temperature of the transferred sample is able to be determined independently by both monitoring changes to vacuum pressure in the buffer chamber and also the thermal response of the APT sample stage in the analysis chamber. This simplified approach has the potential to open up a range of hydrogen trapping studies to any commercial atom probe instrument. Finally, as an example of the use of this simplified cryo-transfer technique, targeted studies for determining the source of hydrogen adsorption during electropolishing and electrolytic loading process are demonstrated. This research provides a critical verification of hydrogen trapping mechanism of fine carbides as well as an achievable experimental protocol for the observation of the trapping of individual hydrogen atoms in alloy microstructures. The methods developed here have the potential to underpin a wide range of possible experiments which address the HE problem, particularly for the design of new mitigation strategies to prevent this critical issue.

A possibilidade de exploração das imagens oferecida pela tomografia computadorizada cone beam (TCCB) permite investigações mais detalhadas do paciente. Este estudo, empregando alguns destes recursos, se propôs a comparar medidas cefalométricas realizadas sobre telerradiografias convencionais e reconstruções de perfil total e unilaterais obtidas da TCCB. Análises cefalométricas de 30 pacientes foram realizadas por um examinador calibrado sobre as reconstruções da TCCB e as telerradiografias convencionais. A reprodutibilidade dos fatores cefalométricos foi investigada por meio do coeficiente de correlação intraclasse em cada imagem. O método de Bland-Altman foi utilizado para averiguar a performance diagnóstica de cada imagem em relação às medidas de cada fator cefalométrico. O coeficiente de correlação intraclasse evidenciou semelhança de reprodutibilidade entre os exames. Quando os valores dos fatores cefalométricos foram comparados, observou-se forte concordância diagnóstica entre as mensurações realizadas sobre telerradiografias convencionais e imagens reconstruídas por TCCB. Conclui-se que, em pacientes sem assimetrias faciais importantes, a telerradiografia convencional e as reconstruções total e unilaterais a partir da TCCB oferecem desempenho de reprodutibilidade e resultado de análise cefalométrica semelhantes. / The possibility to explore images afforded by the cone beam computer tomography (CBCT) technique allows investigating patients in more detail. The present study uses some of these resources to compare cephalometric measurements obtained from conventional cephalograms and total and half-skull synthesized cone beam computed tomography (CBCT) cephalograms. Cephalometric analyses of 30 clinically symmetric patients; were conducted by a calibrated examiner on conventional and CBCTsynthesized cephalograms. Reproducibility was investigated using the intraclass correlation coefficient. The Bland-Altman analysis was used to assess the agreement of the measurements from each factor obtained by conventional, total, right and left CBCT-synthesized cephalograms. The intraclass correlation coefficient revealed similar levels of reproducibility. When the measurements obtained from conventional and CBCT-synthesized cephalograms were compared, the Bland-Altman analysis showed a strong agreement between them. Half-skull CBCT-synthesized cephalograms offer the same diagnostic performance and equivalent reproducibility in terms of cephalometric analysis as observed in conventional and total CBCT-synthesized cephalograms.

Esta dissertação trata do projeto e avaliação de um canal de medição de bioimpedâncias multifrequencial cujo objetivo é a medida em módulo e fase de impedâncias até 1 k com desempenho reportado nas freqüências 100 kHz, 300 kHz e 1 MHz. Um modelo teórico foi desenvolvido para cada etapa do canal de medição incluindo as não idealidades dos componentes utilizados na implementação prática. A análise da sensibilidade à variação de parâmetros e da propagação de incertezas nas etapas do sistema foi realizada juntamente com a avaliação experimental da exatidão e precisão do protótipo desenvolvido. O circuito proposto apresenta incerteza experimental 0,008% nas medidas de amplitude e 0,05% nas medidas de fase. / This dissertation deals with the project and evaluation of a multifrequency bioimpedance measurement channel whose objective is to obtain the measure in module and phase of load impedances up to 1 k with performance reported in 100 kHz, 300 kHz and 1 MHz. A theoretical model was developed for each stage of the measurement channel having included non-idealities of the components used in the practical implementation. The sensitivity analysis with respect to parameter variation and uncertainty analysis in the stages of the system was carried through together with the experimental evaluation of the accuracy and precision of the developed prototype. The considered circuit presents experimental uncertainty of 0.008% in the measures of amplitude and 0.05% in the measures of phase.

A especialidade de Prótese Buco-Maxilo-Facial é responsável por reconstruções complexas da face e do crânio. Entretanto, com a utilização de impressões convencionais, é difícil se alcançar uma adequada adaptação clínica para a reabilitação do paciente. Assim, algumas vêzes, faz-se necessária a obtenção de modelos tridimensionais (3D) que reproduzam a realidade clínica. O objetivo deste estudo é comparar os protótipos obtidos com diferentes protocolos de aquisição de imagem provenientes de distintos aparelhos de tomografia computadorizada com relação à rugosidade superficial, área reconstruída e dose de exposição gerada, procurando estabelecer o mais adequado para a confecção de protótipos de crânio. Para isso, nove protótipos de um fragmento craniofacial seco foram confeccionados. A comparação entre os protótipos quanto à lisura superficial e à área reconstruída foi realizada por meio da Análise de Variância (ANOVA). Nos casos em que a avaliação indicou diferença significativa, foi aplicado como complemento o Teste de Comparações Múltiplas de Tukey. O nível de significância adotado foi de 5%. Em relação à análise de rugosidade as diferenças encontradas não demonstraram correlação com a área reconstruída. Já em relação aos diferentes protocolos, diferenças significativas foram observadas nos protótipos com respeito à área reconstruída e dose de radiação gerada. Pode-se concluir, frente aos resultados encontrados, que as imagens geradas pelos tomógrafos de feixe cônico e feixe em leque, utilizando os protocolos com as resoluções máximas estudadas, estão indicadas para a confecção de protótipos. Contudo, o que deve nortear a seleção do melhor protocolo tomográfico deve ser o propósito da indicação clínica correlacionado com o princípio ALARA (As Low As Reasonably Achievable). / Oral-maxillo-facial prosthodontics is the study of complex face and skull reconstructions. In view of the insufficient degree of adjustment of conventional impression to enable proper clinical rehabilitation, among other reasons, practitioners increasingly resort to 3D models that accurately reproduce the clinical reality. The aim of this study is to determine the optimal selection of imaging device and protocol for use in skull prototyping. The surface roughness and reconstructed area of nine prototypes obtained from a dried craniofacial specimen using different image acquisition protocols and CT devices were measured, in addition to measurements of the radiation dose potentially received by the patient. ANOVA of the surface roughness, reconstructed area and radiation dose data enabled statistical comparisons among the prototypes. Where significant differences were found, Tukey’s multiple-comparison test was conducted, using a significance level of 5%. No correlation was found between surface roughness and reconstructed area. However, significant differences in reconstructed area and radiation dose were found among the different protocols. These results support the use of images generated by CBCT or fan beam CT for the construction of prototypes, using the protocols with the highest resolution. Nevertheless, the selection of the most appropriate TC protocol should be based on the particular clinical indication along with the ALARA (as low as reasonably achievable) principle.

Cancer mortality is progression-dependent thus its treatment relies on effective therapy and monitoring of responses. Nanoparticles have long been used to improve the therapeutic index of drugs by facilitating their transit to the target site at higher concentrations than free drugs, whilst protecting healthy tissues from an often potent and cytotoxic payload. Through the EPR (enhanced permeability and retention) effect, injected, PEGylated nanoparticles preferentially accumulate in tumour tissue deeming them eminently suitable for cancer intervention for delivery of both therapeutic and contrast agents The development of theranostic liposomal systems comprising both imaging and therapeutic capabilities exploits the facets of liposomes, and forms an elegant strategy to address major problems which hinder effective cancer therapy. Liposomes can be tailored to be thermosensitive in a low hyperthermic range of ~42°C, above physiological temperature but below that which can induce tissue damage. This allows the use of heating as an external triggering modality to induce targeted drug release. Throughout the course of this work, the photoacoustic contrast agent ICG was successfully incorporated into PEGylated doxorubicin-encapsulating liposomes, marrying two FDA approved entities. The project commenced with the development of the basic liposomal-DOX. Differing lipid compositions of varying fluidities were tested against those which have been previously established. These compositions carried a range of phase transition temperatures, above which the liposomes release the encapsulated DOX. This study concluded with the generation of a library of liposomes with differing release kinetics at 42°C in simulated physiological conditions. The second section of the project investigated the methodology behind the incorporation of ICG into the liposomal bilayers. The lipid composition used for the study was based on the DOXIL® formulation, due to its robust structure and establishment in the field of cancer therapy. The protocols used varied on the basis of chronology in regards to the liposome preparation protocol. The film insertion method incorporated the ICG in initial lipid film generation. The freeze fracture protocol introduced the ICG during lipid film hydration. The post insertion protocol introduced ICG in the final stages of DOX loading. The downsizing protocol was also varied between extrusion and sonication. Through varying of the protocols and downsizing methodology, it was possible to incorporate differing ICG concentrations and attain differing levels of structural stability. The most successful liposome was then tested for its imaging potential in vivo through a photoacoustic imaging modality namely multispectral optoacoustic tomography. This validated accumulation of the liposomes at the tumour site along with co-localisation of both drug and dye. The project culminated in the combination of the two studies, producing a thermosensitive theranostic ICG labelled liposomal doxorubicin system. The system showed improved blood stability than the current clinical systems, and demonstrated imaging potential through IVIS based fluorescence imaging. Through exploitation of the photothermal effects of ICG within a thermosensitive lipid vesicle, it was also possible to induce drug release through irradiation with a non-thermal near-infrared laser. This shows promise for future therapy, allowing simultaneous imaging, optimum release induction and monitoring response to therapy, in a cheap, effective and time-efficient manner.

Nephrolithiasis can be a painful problem due to presence of kidney stones. Kidney stone is among the common painful disorders of the urinary system. Various imaging modalities are used to diagnose patients with symptoms of renal or urinary tract disease such as plain kidney, ureter, bladder x-ray (KUB), intravenous pyelography (IVP), and computed tomography (CT). As a traditional three-dimensional (3D) nephrolithiasis and kidney stones detection technique, computed tomography (CT) provides detailed cross-sectional images as well as 3D structure of kidney from moving the x-ray beam in a circle around the body. However, the risk of CT scans of the kidney is relatively higher exposure to radiation which is more than regular x-rays. C-arm technique is a new x-ray imaging modality that uses 2D array detector and cone shaped x-ray beam to create 3D information about the scanned object. Both x-ray source and 2D array detector cells mounted on C-shaped wheeled structure (C-arm). A series of projection images are acquired by rotating the C-arm around the patient in along circular path with a single rotation. The characteristic structure of C-arm allows to provide wide variety of movements around the patient that helps to remain the patient stationary during scanning time. In this work, we investigated a C-arm technique to generate a series of tomographic images for nephrolithiasis and detection of kidney stones. C-arm tomographic technique (C-arm tomosynthesis) as a new three dimensional (3D) kidney imaging method that provides a series of two dimensional (2D) images along partial circular orbit over limited view angle. Our experiments were done with kidney phantom which formed from a pig kidney with two embedded kidney stones inside it and low radiation dosage. Radiation dose and scanning time needed for kidney imaging are all dramatically reduced due to the cone beam geometry and also to limitation of angular rotation. To demonstrate the capability of our C-arm tomosynthesis to generate 3D kidney information for kidney stone detection, two groups of tomographic image reconstruction algorithms were developed for C-arm tomosynthesis: direct algorithms such as filtered back projection (FBP) and iterative algorithms such as simultaneous algebraic reconstruction technique (SART), maximum likelihood expectation maximization (MLEM), ordered- subset maximum likelihood expectation maximization (OS-MLEM) and Pre-computed penalized likelihood reconstruction (PPL). Three reconstruction methods were investigated including: pixel-driven method (PDM), ray-driven method (RDM) and distance driven method (DDM). Each method differs in their efficiency of calculation accuracy per computing time. Preliminary results demonstrated the capability of proposed technique to generate volumetric data about the kidney for nephrolithiasis and kidney stone detection by using all investigated reconstruction algorithms. In spite of each algorithms differs in their strategies, embedded kidney stone can be clearly visualized in all reconstruction results. Computer simulation studies were also done on simulated phantom to evaluate the results for each reconstruction algorithm. To mimic kidney phantom, simulated phantom was simulated with two different size kidney stones. Dataset of projection images was collated by using a virtual C-arm tomosynthesis with geometric configuration similar to real technique. All investigated algorithms were used to reconstruct 3D information. Different of image quality functions were applied to evaluate the imaging system and the reconstruction algorithms. The results show the capability of C-arm tomosynthesis to generate 3D information of kidney structures and to identify the size and location of kidney stones with limited amount of radiation dose.

L'estimation des pertes de précontrainte liées aux déformations différées des bétons est un sujet d'intérêt pour la maintenance à long terme d'ouvrages de génie civil tels que les enceintes de confinement des centrales nucléaires. L'objectif de ce travail de doctorat est d'améliorer la prise en compte des particularités morphologiques de la microstructure des bétons pour estimer le comportement à long terme des bétons précontraints. Cette étude est limitée au cadre de la mécanique des matériaux et à la théorie de l'homogénéisation : le béton y est décrit comme un matériau composite constitué de granulats élastiques enchâssés dans une matrice cimentaire viscoélastique linéaire vieillissante. Les outils novateurs mis en œuvre sont la tomographie par rayons X et la simulation numérique 3D.On distingue sur les images de tomographie les granulats, la matrice cimentaire et l'air occlus. Mais l'extraction de données morphologiques de ces images est une tâche difficile à systématiser. En revanche, la construction numérique de microstructures matrice-inclusions et la simulation numérique 3D en viscoélasticité linéaire se sont montrées assez robustes pour permettre l'étude de l'influence de paramètres morphologiques (fraction volumique, granulométrie et forme des inclusions) sur le comportement macroscopique estimé. Le schéma d'homogénéisation semi-analytique de Sanahuja dédié aux matériaux composites viscoélastiques linéaires vieillissants a été étendu aux cas d'inclusions ellipsoïdales pour étudier l'influence du rapport d'aspect des inclusions sur le comportement viscoélastique vieillissant d'un béton. Les estimations du comportement macroscopique par les simulations numériques 3D restent proches de celles obtenues par les schémas d'homogénéisation semi-analytiques. Ainsi, il reste difficile d'expliquer la dispersion des résultats expérimentaux de Granger par l'homogénéisation, dans la mesure où les bétons de Granger ont des formulations similaires. Enfin, les simulations numériques 3D permettent l'estimation des contraintes dans la matrice cimentaire lorsque l'on impose à un échantillon de béton une histoire de chargement similaire à celle rencontrée sur les ouvrages / Prestress losses due to creep of concrete is a matter of interest for long term operations of containment buildings. In the present study, the time-dependent strains of concretes are estimated starting from morphological details of the microstructure. X-ray tomography provide a new way to spot such details and 3D numerical simulations are performed to estimate the time-dependent strains. Concrete is described as a composite material made of aggregates embedded in a cementitious matrix. On X-ray tomography images, aggregates can be separated from the cementitious matrix and entrained air. But extracting morphological parameters remains a difficult task. Nevertheless, building numerical matrix-inclusion microstructures and performing 3D numerical simulations proved a reliable way to estimate the influence of morphological features such as a the volume fraction of aggregates or the sieve curve on the time-dependent strains of concretes. Moreover, the semi-analytic homogenization scheme of Sanahuja dedicated to linear aging viscoelastic composite materials has been extended to the case of ellipsoidal inclusions to study the influence of the aspect ratio of the aggregates on the time-dependent strains of concretes.3D numerical estimates of the overall time-dependent behavior of concrete are similar to the ones produced by semi-analytical homogenization schemes. Hence, explaining the differences between the experimental measurements of the time-dependent strains of concretes performed by Granger remains challenging given the similarities between their mix designs. Lastly, 3D numerical simulations are performed on a sample of concrete to estimate the local stress in the cementitious matrix, the history of loading being representative of the one experienced in a containment building

xii, 98 p. : ill. (some col.) / The upper-crustal seismic-velocity structure of Newberry volcano, central Oregon, is imaged using P-wave travel time tomography. The inversion combines a densely-spaced seismic line collected in 2008 with two USGS seismic experiments from the 1980s. A high-velocity ring (7 km EW by 5 km NS) beneath the inner caldera faults suggests an intrusive ring complex 200 to 500 m thick. Within this ring shallow low velocities (<2 km depth) are interpreted as caldera fill and a subsided block. High velocities below 2 km depth could be intrusive complexes. There appears to be a low-velocity body at 3-6 km depth beneath the center of the volcano. This region is poorly resolved in the inversion because the ray paths bend around the low-velocity body. The 2008 data also recorded a secondary arrival that may be a delayed P-wave interacting with the low-velocity body. / Committee in charge: Emilie E.E. Hooft, Chairperson; Douglas R. Toomey, Member; Katharine V. Cashman, Member

The following dissertation investigates a problem related to the practice of quantum tomography, where one usually estimates the parameters associated with quantum states or measurements. In particular, the question answered is whether and how one could detect if states and measurements are correlated. A similar question answered is how one could detect state-preparation non-localities and measurement non-localities in multiqudit systems. The solution involves an analysis of certain matrix quantities called \emph{partial determinants}. Partial determinants are an application of the Born rule that can be interpreted as tomography over a loop in the space of state and measurement settings. From this perspective, the notion of state and observable become \emph{non-holonomic} | that is, state and observable parameters can be defined ``locally'' over each setting but not globally over all settings. As such, state and measurement parameters are not estimated because such estimated values don't exist in correlated systems, but rather the inability to estimate such values is quantified. Therefore, partial determinants are a measure of the amount of contradiction that would result from any claim of such a estimated values by propagating these estimates through a `tomography loop' of data collected by various experiments. Such measures of contradiction are generally known as \emph{holonomies}.

Ces travaux de thèse s’inscrivent dans le cadre du développement d’outils métrologiques avancés pour la mécanique des fluides, et en particulier pour les souffleries. La Background Oriented Schlieren (BOS) 3D, développée à l’ONERA, est une technique qui exploite la déviation des rayons lumineux par un milieu non homogène pour mesurer la masse volumique. Elle consiste à comparer l’image de référence d’un fond texturé avec l’image de ce même fond en présence d’un écoulement. La corrélation entre ces deux images permet de calculer la déviation des rayons lumineux. En réalisant une acquisition simultanée à partir de différents points de vue, il est possible de reconstruire le champ de masse volumique associé, par résolution d’un problème inverse. Afin de poursuivre le développement de la technique, nous avons tout d’abord développé une chaîne de traitement plus systématique puis amélioré la robustesse de notre algorithme de reconstruction. Après avoir réalisé une validation sur des données de synthèse, nous avons mise en œuvre notre méthode sur un banc d’essais comportant 12 caméras. Par la suite, la technique a été déployée pour la première fois en soufflerie sur un jet chaud subsonique. Lors de cette campagne, elle a été validée par comparaison avec des mesures de température. Des acquisitions couplées BOS 3D et stéréo PIV ont également été effectuées. Une démonstration à l’échelle d’une soufflerie industrielle a ensuite été réalisée dans la soufflerie S1MAde l’ONERA. Les problématiques rencontrées sur les écoulements compressibles lors de ces essais ont ensuite conduit à étudier de manière plus approfondie les écoulements présentant de forts gradients d’indice optique. Un banc de mesure BOS 3D a été conçu en laboratoire afin d’optimiser la mesure d’un jet sous-détendu. Sur cette configuration, de très bon accords ont été obtenus avec la littérature ainsi qu’avec une simulation DES. A travers cette étude, nous avons étendu le domaine d’application de la BOS 3D aux écoulements compressibles et démontré son utilisation en soufflerie. La qualité des résultats obtenus démontre le potentiel offert par la technique pour l’analyse physique des écoulements. / This PhD work is part of the development of advanced metrological tools for fluid dynamics, especially for wind tunnel applications. 3D Background Oriented Schlieren (BOS), which has been developed at ONERA, is a line-of-sight technique which takes advantage of light rays deviation through an inhomogenous index media to measure density. It consisted in comparing a reference image of a textured background with the image of the background with the flow in presence. Image correlation can then be used to compute light rays deviations. Performing such acquisition from multiple view points, allows to reconstruct the corresponding density field, by solving an inverse problem. In order to pursue the technique development, we first elaborate a systematic processing chain and improved the robustness of the reconstruction algorithm. After validating our method on synthetic data, we applied it on a 3DBOS bench equipped with 12 cameras. Thereafter, the technique has been set up for the first time in a wind tunnel environment, on a subsonic hot jet configuration. During this test campaign, the technique has been validated via thermocouples measurements.Moreover, 3DBOS and stereo-PIV coupled acquisitions have been performed. Thereafter, a demonstration in industrial wind tunnel has been performed in ONERA S1MA facility. Compressible flows issues encountered during those tests lead us to finer analysis high density gradient flows. A 3DBOS test bench has been built in laboratory in order to optimize underexpanded jet measurements. On this specific configuration, very good agreements have bee obtained in comparison with literature and with a DES simulation. This study has allowed the extension of 3DBOS application domain to compressible flows and it has demonstrated its use in a wind tunnel environment. The quality of the results highlights the technique potential for flows physical investigation.