Code-switching (CS) has been extensively studied for a variety of purposes and under many contexts. In recent years there has been a shift in CS literature to better understand the sociological forces that affect speakers’ use of CS. While in earlier literature, CS was perceived negatively by both speakers and the general public (Milroy & Muysken, 1995; MacGregor-Mendoza, 2021; Anderson & Toribio, 2007; Fishman, 1967), it has since been shown that many bilinguals view CS positively. More recent research suggests that bilinguals perceive CS as an important part of their identity and use it to show they belong to particular groups (Yim & Clément, 2021; Rothman & Rell, 2005; Duff, 2012; Buchlotz & Hall, 2005; Bustamante-López, 2008; Torrez, 2013; Norton, 1997; Norton, 2013). These recent studies regarding CS and attitudes have largely focused on individual differences (Dewaele & Wei, 2014a; Gardner-Chloros, McEntee-Atalianis, & Finnis, 2005; Moses et al., 2021; Peña-Díaz, 2004; Urciuoli, 2014; Montes-Alcalá, 2009; Chappell & Faldis, 2007; Yim & Clément, 2021). In this research, I posit that the country in which bilinguals live influences their attitudes toward CS use due to differences in immigration policies in each country. Considering that the three countries have different attitudes toward immigrants (Brosseau & Dewing, 2018; Environics Institute of Survey Research; The Gallup Organization, 2022; Budiman, 2020; Sief & Clement, 2019), this could have an impact on how immigrants themselves use CS and their attitudes toward it. Spanish-English and English-Spanish bilinguals in three countries (Canada, the United States, and Mexico) took a survey that evaluated their attitudes toward CS, frequency of use, and if and how they used CS to form their identity. The results of the study suggest that there are differences in attitudes about CS between bilinguals in these three countries. Moreover, the results demonstrated that while Canadian bilinguals had more positive feelings overall toward CS, bilinguals in the U.S. used CS more often.

This systematic literature review examines the language use in the EFL classroom in lower secondary school. It aims to investigate how the target language, English, and local languages are used. Furthermore, teachers’ as well as students’ views on the language use in the classroom were investigated. This was done by compiling and comparing the findings of eight peer- reviewed research articles about the topic. The results show that language practices as well as views differ between teachers and their pupils. However, the general picture shows that, although English is the main language in the EFL classroom, there are contexts in which the pupil’s native language can be used beneficially.

Studiens syfte är dels att undersöka hur lärare och skolor arbetar med hemläxor i ämnet svenska för flerspråkiga elever i årskurs 4–6, dels att tolka hur arbetet med hemläxor förhåller sig till sociokulturell teori. Materialet är insamlat med semistrukturerade intervjuer med sex grundskollärare och därefter analyserats utefter innehållet. Resultatet visar att läxorna anpassas till de flerspråkiga eleverna genom att de får stöd från flera olika lärarkategorier men också genom att de får kortare och enklare läxor som de kan översätta till sina förstaspråk. Kontakten med vårdnadshavare tas huvudsakligen på samma sätt som med hem med svenska som förstaspråk och begränsar sig till föräldramöten, utvecklingssamtal och veckobrev. Vidare visar studien att läxorna följs upp för att eleverna ska motiveras till att fortsätta genomföra sina hemläxor men också för att ge en inblick i hur eleverna presterat. Den görs ofta i grupparbeten för att eleverna ska ta del av det svenska språket genom diskussion. Resultatet tolkat med sociokulturell teori visar att lärarna uppfattar att eleverna får för stora kognitiva utmaningar om de ska göra samma läxor som eleverna med svenska som förstaspråk och att eleverna erbjuds såväl flera olika aktiviteter där mer kunniga personer kan ge stöttning till läxläsningen som materiella och språkliga redskap som ska hjälpa eleverna att bättre förstå svenska ord och läsning på svenska. Läxorna individualiseras för att nå elevernas proximala utvecklingszoner.

This degree project aims to examine teachers' use of translanguaging, whether planned or incidental, and their attitudes and perceptions towards translanguaging in the context of English communicative classrooms in Sweden. In Swedish universities, the target language approach is highly endorsed by educators during English teaching education programs. Although exposure to the target language has been identified as important, comprehension plays a vital role in learning a new language. Translanguaging is an approach that enhances comprehension while allowing for exposure to the target language. This study was conducted through classroom observations followed by qualitative interviews with practicing teachers. Quantitative data from the observations and qualitative data from the interviews highlight the use of translanguaging as well as practicing teachers’ attitudes and perceptions of the approach. Our study showed that, even though teachers were somewhat unfamiliar with translanguaging as a term, they utilized what could be considered translanguaging during their English lessons and held positive attitudes toward the approach. Translanguaging was primarily used to explain and clarify activities. Teachers utilized their own and students' multilingual capabilities to achieve a deeper understanding of topics and to provide instructions.

I dagens klassrum finns en allt större andel flerspråkiga elever och hur detta kan bemötas för att en likvärdig undervisning ska kunna skapas kan av lärare upplevas utmanande. Syftet med studien är därför att bidra med kunskap om hur lärare i grundskolans årskurs 1–3 upplever att de arbetar med att inkludera flerspråkiga resurser i svenskundervisningen, för att förbättra lärandet i det flerspråkiga klassrummet. Frågeställningarna som besvaras är: I vilken utsträckning och på vilka sätt upplever lärarna att de inkluderar flerspråkiga resurser i svenskundervisningen? Vilka möjligheter och utmaningar upplever lärarna att det finns med att inkludera flerspråkiga resurser i svenskundervisningen? Det teoretiska ramverket för studien grundar sig i Vygotskijs sociokulturella teori och dess fokus på språkutveckling och socialt samspel. Materialet samlades in genom semistrukturerade intervjuer med lärare och analyserades genom tematisk analys. Resultatet visar att lärarna ser på flerspråkiga resurser på olika sätt och att dessa verkar vara avhängiga vilken skola lärarna undervisar på. Det visar även att lärarna ser möjligheterna och de goda effekterna av att nyttja elevers flerspråkiga resurser, men även utmaningar i form av brist på bland annat resurser och tid. / In today's classrooms, there is an increasing number of multilingual students, and how this can be dealt with to create equal teaching can be experienced by teachers as challenging. The aim is therefore to contribute with knowledge about how teachers in primary school grades 1–3 perceive that they are working to include multilingual resources in Swedish teaching, to improve learning in the multilingual classroom. The research questions that were answered are: To what extent and how do the teachers feel that they include multilingual resources in the Swedish teaching? What opportunities and challenges do teachers perceive with including multilingual resources in Swedish teaching? The theoretical framework for the study is based on Vygotsky's sociocultural theory and its focus on language development and social interaction. The material was collected through semi-structured interviews and analyzed through thematic analysis. The results show that the teachers look at multilingual resources in different ways and that these seem to depend on which school the teachers teach at. It also shows that the teachers see the opportunities and the good effects of using students' multilingual resources, but also challenges in form of a lack of resources and time, among other things.

Over 20,000 Swedish lower high school students are currently learning mathematics in English but little research has been conducted in this area. This study looks into the question of how much second language learner training teachers teaching mathematics in English to Swedish speaking students have acquired and how many of those teachers are using effective teaching practices for second language learners. The study confirms earlier findings that report few teachers receive training in second language learning but indicates that some of the teaching practices shown to be effective with second language learners are being used in some Swedish schools / Mer än 20 000 högstadiet elever i Sverige har valt att lära sig matematik på engelska, men det finns väldigt lite forskning inom området. Detta arbete granskar hur mycket utbildning i andraspråksinlärning har lärare som undervisar matematik på engelska till svensktalande elever och hur många av de undervisnings-strategier som tidigare forskning har visat att vara effektiva används numera under matematiklektionerna på engelska? Arbetet bekräftar tidigare forskning, som visar att få lärare som undervisar matematik på engelska till svensktalande elever har fått utbildning i andraspråksinlärning, men den här forskningen visar att några av de effektiva strategierna numera används under matematiklektioner i vissa skolor. / <p>Matematik</p>

Globalization, and the movement of workers in the high technology industries of Silicon Valley have far reaching effects on the school systems which serve their children. This study takes place in a neighborhood public school in the heart of the area known as Silicon Valley, California, during the early implementation of the Common Core State Standards. During the time of this study, the student population in the valley was growing in number and diversity due to the impact of developments in the high technology industries in the valley, and the education system was recovering from drastic budget cuts as well as embracing a nationwide curriculum movement aimed at more standardization, high-stakes testing, and accountability. As the teacher in the role of participant observer and researcher, employing ethnographic methods of data collection, including video recordings, observations, interviews, and reflective journals and video journaling, student interactions were recorded and analyzed through the application of Bernstein’s theories of pedagogic interactions as well as sociocultural learning theory and the work of Vygotsky. The results indicate that Reading Buddies could be an example of an ‘empowering pedagogy’ which gives linguistically and socially marginalized children a voice in an educational milieu driven by high stakes testing and accountability with an emphasis on the use of English. The study highlights strategies used by young children acquiring English as an additional language to interact with and co-construct meaning of English language texts during weekly Reading Buddy sessions. Seeing the diversity found in the classrooms as a strength and benefit to the education system, this study explores how allowing space for children to bring every day knowledge, home languages, and personal experiences into literacy practices impacts their interactions with English Language texts.

The importance of mother tongue-based bilingual medium of instruction in bilingual and multilingual classrooms has been evidenced in ample studies in different parts of the world including Ghana. However, studies on how bilingualism is carried out with respect to classroom displays in bilingual education is very scant and even none, as far as I know, in Ghana. Also, there is emerging research on teachers’ translanguaging practices in other parts of the world including South Africa but research on instructional use of translanguaging is yet to be conducted in Ghana. Therefore, this study examined kindergarten teachers’ bilingual practices with regard to classroom displays as well as their translanguaging practices at morning assembly in some selected schools in the Cape Coast Metropolis in the Central Region of Ghana. The study used the Ghanaian part of a secondary data that was sponsored by the New Civics Grants from the Spencer Foundation in the USA. Joint research team from the USA and Ghana collected these data in six kindergarten classrooms in each of the two countries. Even though the initial purpose of the study was to examine how classroom wall displays connected with young children's roles as apprentice citizens, repurposing it for this study was suitable because all the classrooms photographed are public schools that use the NALAP in their ECE classrooms. However, four schools participated because they used the local languages that I can read and write. Guided by the purpose, two research questions and two different data (photographs of classroom wall displays and video of morning assembly) were used. I used qualitative design through visual research method and Barbara Rogoff’s (1990, 2003) socio-cultural theory as my theoretical lens. The photo data was analyzed semiotically (Chandler, 2007, Semetsky, 2010, 2017) and used discourse analysis with the big “D” for the analysis of the video data (Gee, 2014, Gee & Handford, 2012). The findings indicated that all the schools except one had bilingually labeled displays among their classroom displays (though bilingual labeling was given less attention) with the major language pair for the bilingual labeling being English and Mfantse languages. It also came out that most of the bilingually labeled displays were posted within the eye level of the students. More so, with regard to the sign type, most of the bilingually labeled displays were iconic. Regarding the teachers’ translanguaging practices at morning assembly, the findings indicated that all the participating schools and teachers translanguaged during the conduct of their respective morning assembly. It was revealed that aside from using translanguaging as comprehension enhancer, it was also used as a downtoner as well as alienation tool linguistically. However, the findings showed that English only displays far dominated both the bilingual labeling and translanguaging practices of the teachers. Based on the findings, the study recommended that ECE colleges of education in Ghana should include knowledge and skills for bilingual labeling in their pre-service preparation since the nation is a multilingual state. Also, pedagogical use of translanguaging should be included in teacher education curriculum so that teachers would be intentional about its usage in instruction delivery. In addition, higher education like University of Cape Coast (UCC) and University of Education, Winneba (UEW) which are the main trainers of teacher educators in the country need to develop curriculum for bilingual teaching with attention to effective design and use of bilingual labeling and training manuals for ECE teachers on the effective use of bilingual labeling and pedagogical use of translanguaging in Ghanaian ECE education. More so, there should professional development on the effective use of bilingual classroom display as well as translanguaging for in-service teachers in Ghana so to promote the academic achievement of the bi/multilingual students Ghanaian schools serve.

There are many different perceptions when it comes to teachers’ instructional language choice in the EFL classroom. Some argue for maximum use of the target language while others believe that judicious use of the L1 can benefit the students’ second language learning. The aim of this study is to investigate what research says about teachers’ target language use and first language use in upper level EFL classrooms, as well as teachers’ attitudes and beliefs regarding the choice of instructional language. The findings from this systematic literature review show that teachers mainly used L1 to save time, to explain grammar and vocabulary and to create a positive classroom atmosphere. Furthermore, the results also showed that teachers’ choice to use L1 heavily depended on students’ level of proficiency. Lastly, the results indicate that teachers not always use the L1 for pedagogical reasons, but in many cases for pragmatical reasons, individual beliefs and out of concern for students’ well-being.

The overarching aims of this thesis are to investigate how students in higher education in Rwanda experience learning through the medium of a foreign language, mainly English, and the strategies they employ in order to successfully complete their university studies during a period of both language and educational change. Taking a sociocultural perspective, the thesis subscribes to a qualitative research design. Interviews were used in order to gain in-depth understanding of how higher education students reflect on, handle and cope with learning through a foreign language. Video and audio recorded interactions of students’ formal and informal group discussions were used to capture some of the seen but unnoticed linguistic and communicative details that might be of interest in shedding light on aspects related to learning in a foreign language. Four empirical studies show that students face different challenges in using the newly adopted language of learning and teaching. They are, however, aware of the fact that the globalisation process and dissolution of national boundaries may create new opportunities and are therefore willing to upgrade their English in order to cope with the new academic situation. Findings show that active use of multiple languages, although time consuming, has great potential to facilitate learning, thus emphasizing the complementarities rather than the exclusion of languages used in Rwanda. Also, teacher and student initiated group discussions have the potential to promote knowledge construction in content subjects as students afford a context for confident participation. Although the mother tongue is not officially recognised as language of instruction in higher education, it plays a mediating role for the negotiation of meaning of domain specific content through responsible code switching and translanguaging. / Det övergripande syftet för denna avhandling är att undersöka hur studenter inom högre utbildning i Rwanda erfar att lära på ett främmande språk, i huvudsak engelska, och vilka strategier de använder sig av för att lyckas genomföra sina universitetsstudier i en tid av förändring av både undervisningsspråk och undervisningen i sig. Avhandlingen tar sin utgångspunkt i ett sociokulturellt perspektiv och en kvalitativ forskningsdesign. Intervjuer genomfördes för att få fördjupad förståelse för hur studenterna reflekterar över och hanterar problemet med att lära på ett främmande språk. Video- och audioinspelade interaktioner av studenternas formella och informella gruppdiskussioner användes för att fånga och analysera språkliga och kommunikativa detaljer som förekommer men ofta förbises eller tas för givna. Fyra empiriska studier visar att studenterna möter olika utmaningar när de måste använda ett nyligen introducerat främmande språk i undervisningen och i olika lärandesituationer. De är emellertid medvetna om att globalisering och upplösning av nationella gränser kan skapa nya möjligheter och är därför villiga att förbättra sin engelska för att kunna klara av den nya undervisningssituationen. Analyserna visar också att aktiv användning av en mångfald av språk, även om det är tidsödande, har stor potential att underlätta lärande och på så sätt betonas den komplementerande snarare än den exkluderande synen på språkanvändning i Rwanda. Dessutom visar det sig att diskussioner i grupp initierade av både lärare och studenter har en potential att stödja konstruktionen av kunskap inom akademiska ämnen eftersom studenterna skapar en tillitsfull miljö där de är trygga att delta. Studierna visar också att trots att modersmålet inte är officiellt erkänt som undervisningsspråk spelar det en medierande roll i framförhandlandet av innehållet inom olika ämnesområden genom olika former av gränsöverskridande språkande där alla språk som studenterna har tillgång till används.