HIV/AIDS is prevalent among adolescent youth in South Africa particularly among adolescent girls. Numerous efforts have been made to contain the pandemic through HIV prevention information in schools and through community and mass media campaigns, but all these efforts seem not to have an impact on the sexual behaviour of the youth. Reports from various studies concluded that although these programmes increase adolescents’ knowledge they have a minimal impact on their sexual behaviour. The current study explores perceptions of HIV/AIDS among a group of adolescent girls (between 14 and 19 years old) as well as the impact of these perceptions on their sexual practices and development. The results revealed that perceptions of HIV/AIDS appear to have an impact on adolescent girls’ sexual practices.

BACKGROUND: Kenya has made a commitment to virtually eliminate mother to child transmission of HIV (MTCT) by 2015. To achieve virtual elimination, the prevention of MTCT (PMTCT) programs must achieve high coverage and retain HIV-positive women throughout the PMTCT continuum of care. METHODS: A mixed methods study was conducted in three health facilities in Kenya. To quantify retention along the PMTCT care continuum, a retrospective chart review was conducted on HIV positive pregnant or recently-delivered women 18 or older presenting for antenatal care or delivery between January 2012 and May 2013. The primary outcome was retention at individual and facility levels through 18 months postpartum. Logistic regression analysis was performed to determine predictors of retention. Semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with HIV positive women and male partners to understand barriers and facilitators of retention in PMTCT care. A failure mode and effect analysis was conducted to identify potential failures along the PMTCT cascade. RESULTS: Across the study sites, only 9%, 10% and 16% of the cohort was fully retained. The retention decreased significantly along the PMTCT cascade from antenatal to the postnatal phase. Gestational age at first antenatal visit (p= 0.043) and the number of antenatal visits attended (p=0.036) were identified as significant predictors of non-retention in PMTCT care. The facilitators of retention included acceptance of HIV positive status, supportive male partners, disclosure of HIV status to male partners and family, peer counseling and psychosocial support, and positive experiences with healthcare providers. Identified barriers were the inverse of the facilitators and were reinforced by stigma, financial pressure, and stress. The failure modes identified along the cascade included: missed opportunities for HIV testing and delivery of PMTCT interventions at antenatal, poor quality of data, loss of infant’s HIV test results, long wait times, and poor linkage between health facilities. CONCLUSION: Retention along the PMTCT continuum of care was low at the study facilities. The facilitators and barriers of retention comprised an interaction of personal, societal and structural dynamics operating simultaneously. The results provide the needed context and important considerations in the improvement of PMTCT implementation strategies as Kenya transitions to provide lifelong ART.

Background and Objectives: Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) and mother to child transmission (MTCT) of the Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV) are major threats to maternal and foetal health, especially in low and middle income countries. This thesis addressed two main objectives: 1) to investigate strategies for the prevention of PPH, with a focus on misoprostol; 2) to investigate strategies for prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV, with a focus on the male partner. Methods: We employed a number of study designs including a cross sectional design, a retrospective chart review, and a systematic review which included Classical and Bayesian approaches of meta- analysis. Key methodological issues addressed include the use of propensity score matching methods to address channeling bias; comparison and combination of evidence from different sources; sensitivity analysis in health research; and methods for developing new tools for measurement in health research. Results and Conclusions: Our findings suggests that an oxytocin-misoprostol combination is better than the current standard of care of oxytocin-only which is recommended by the World Health Organisation for the prevention of PPH. Secondly, effectiveness data from well-designed observational studies may be used to inform clinical decisions on misoprostol in the prevention of PPH. Thirdly, using a new tool we have created, it is possible to objectively identify HIV positive women who lack the support of their male partners in adhering to PMTCT recommendations. / Background and Objectives: Postpartum haemorrhage (PPH) and mother to child transmission (MTCT) of the Human Immune Deficiency Virus (HIV) are major threats to maternal and foetal health, especially in low and middle income countries. This thesis addressed two main objectives: 1) to investigate strategies for the prevention of PPH, with a focus on misoprostol; 2) to investigate strategies for prevention of mother to child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV, with a focus on the male partner. Methods: We employed a number of study designs including a cross sectional design, a retrospective chart review, and a systematic review which included Classical and Bayesian approaches of meta- analysis. Key methodological issues addressed include the use of propensity score matching methods to address channeling bias; comparison and combination of evidence from different sources; sensitivity analysis in health research; and methods for developing new tools for measurement in health research. Results and Conclusions: Our findings suggests that an oxytocin-misoprostol combination is better than the current standard of care of oxytocin-only which is recommended by the World Health Organisation for the prevention of PPH. Secondly, effectiveness data from well-designed observational studies may be used to inform clinical decisions on misoprostol in the prevention of PPH. Thirdly, using a new tool we have created, it is possible to objectively identify HIV positive women who lack the support of their male partners in adhering to PMTCT recommendations. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

South Africa recently changed infant feeding policy within Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission (PMTCT) of HIV from free formula to recommendation of breastfeeding for all. The country is evaluating the role of Community Health Workers (CHWs) in supporting mothers and newborns. The aim of this thesis is to explore perceptions of household members on the value given to and the social forces behind formula feeding in light of the recent policy change, and to assess the effect of a community-based package of maternal and newborn care delivered by CHWs on HIV-free survival and exclusive and appropriate infant feeding up to 12 weeks of age. Studies were conducted in a high HIV prevalence township. Focus group discussions were performed (grandmothers, fathers and teenage mothers) and in-depth interviews with HIV-positive and HIV-negative mothers. Perceptions of household members on the formula policy change were explored and the value household members place on formula feeding and circumstances that drive it. In a cluster-randomized trial (15 intervention, 15 control clusters) CHWs provided two antenatal and five post-natal home visits to support and promote PMTCT activities. There were misunderstandings by community members on the free formula policy change. Mothers transferred the motherhood role to their mothers while partners provided inadequate financial support, leading to risky mixed feeding. Teenage mothers rarely breastfed their infants due to perceived constraints including embarrassment, sagging breasts and loss of freedom and boyfriends. At 12 weeks of age the intervention had doubled exclusive breastfeeding (EBF) (28% vs. 14%) and slightly increased infant weight and length. No difference was seen between study arms in HIV-free survival. The effect on EBF at12 weeks did not differ with maternal education or wealth levels, but was higher among HIV-negative mothers.  Focusing on teenage mothers breastfeeding challenges, involvement of grandmothers and fathers in infant feeding decision-making, improving communication strategies on policy change and breastfeeding to the community and health workers and CHWs home visits supporting PMTCT activities are important for infant feeding and child health.

Mother-to-infant vertical transmission of HIV usually occurs during pregnancy, labor, delivery or breastfeeding. It is the third leading cause of transmission of HIV after sexual intercourse and blood transfusions. In 2008, 12 million women aged 15 years and above were anticipated to be living with HIV in countries within Sub-Saharan Africa. In this study, the association between parental HIV knowledge, attitudes and risk reduction practices, and HIV vertical transmission in Kenya were explored. The health belief model was used to help understand and interpret the findings. For this quantitative study, data were collected via surveys from 212 participants in 3 HIV clinics in Kenya. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Around 45% of respondents lacked knowledge on key aspects of Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission (PMTCT) of HIV particularly on expressing and heat treating milk from HIV positive mothers to make it safe for their babies. About 65% of Participants had awareness towards Mother to Child Transmission (MTCT) of HIV. Logistic regression showed no association between socioeconomic factors and parental knowledge on MTCT of HIV. Logistic modeling found that there was association between attitude and MTCT, revealing that attitude increased the likelihood to influence MTCT. Being married was associated with reduced risk of MTCT of HIV. The overall results indicated gaps in knowledge and information packaging. The potential positive social change implication of this study is that factors related to HIV vertical transmission identified in this study might be utilized to develop and implement HIV prevention strategies to reduce HIV vertical transmission and decrease associated morbidity and mortality among this vulnerable population.

Thesis (MCur)--Stellenbosch University, 2011. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The impact of infant feeding practices in the prevention of mother-to-childtransmission of HIV raised concerns in the field of health services. Breast feeding adds an additional 15-30% risk of HIV transmission to the infant; therefore, mothers who are HIV-positive are in need of information regarding safe infant feeding. A descriptive design for this particular study was applied with a primary quantitative approach. A convenient sample of sixty (n=60) participants between the ages of 15 – 37 were taken from subjects that enrolled in the prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) programme in Onandjokwe district. The sample formed 85% of the target population (N=71). A structured questionnaire with closed and openended questions was used and completed by the researcher. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Ethics Committee at the Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Stellenbosch. Permission to conduct the research was obtained from the Ministry of Health and Social Services, Namibia, and the Onandjokwe district Hospital. A pilot study was conducted that constituted 25% of the sample. Validity and reliability was insured by the pilot study and the consultation of an expert in HIV research and an expert in nursing research. The presentation of results was mostly descriptive in nature by using frequency tables and a pie chart. The results showed that all participants (n=60/100%) were offered HIV counselling and testing during antenatal care. Mothers who were HIV positive knew that there is a possibility that the baby might be infected through breast milk. Furthermore, the study found that 70% (n=42) of participants used breast feeding exclusively, 20% (n=12) used replacement feeding and 10% (n=6) used mixed feeding practices. It was concluded that pregnant women and mothers known to be HIV-infected should be informed of the infant feeding practice recommended by the national or subnational authority to improve HIV-free survival of HIV-exposed infants. This includes information about the risks and benefits of various infant feeding options based on local assessments and guidance in selecting the most suitable option for their own situation. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die invloed van voedingspraktyke vir babas by die voorkoming van moeder-na-kindoordrag van die menslike immuungebrekvirus (MIV) het kommer op die gebied van gesondheidsdienste laat ontstaan. Borsvoeding dra ’n addisionele 15–30% risiko van MIV-oordrag tot die baba by en daarom benodig moeders wat MIV-positief is inligting ten opsigte van veilige voeding van hulle babas. 'n Beskrywende ontwerp vir hierdie besondere studie is gebruik tesame met 'n primêr kwantitatiewe benadering. 'n Gerieflikheidsteekproef van sestig (n=60) deelnemers tussen die ouderdomme 15–37 jaar is gekies uit persone wat ingeskryf het vir die voorkoming van moeder-na-kind-oordrag (VMNKO) program in Onandjokwe-distrik. Die steekproef het 85% van die teikenpopulasie (N=71) uitgemaak. 'n Gestruktureerde vraelys met geslote en oop vrae is gebruik en deur die navorser voltooi. Etiese goedkeuring vir die studie is verkry van die Etiese Kommitee van die Fakulteit Gesondheidswetenskappe, Universiteit Stellenbosch. Toestemming om die navorsing te doen, is verkry van die Ministerie van Gesondheid en Maatskaplike Dienste, Namibië, en die Onandjokwe Distrikshospitaal. 'n Loodsstudie is onderneem wat 25% van die steekproef behels het. Geldigheid en betroubaarheid is verseker deur die loodsstudie en oorlegpleging met 'n kundige op die gebied van MIV-navorsing en 'n kundige in verpleegnavorsing. Die aanbieding van resultate was meestal deskriptief van aard deur van frekwensietabelle en 'n sektordiagram gebruik te maak. Die resultate het getoon dat MIV-berading en -toetsing gedurende voorgeboortesorg aan alle deelnemers (n=60/100%) aangebied is. Moeders wat MIV-positief is, het geweet dat daar 'n moontlikheid bestaan dat die baba moontlik deur moedersmelk geïnfekteer kan word. Verder het die studie bevind dat 70% (n=42) van deelnemers uitsluitlik borsvoeding gebruik, 20% (n=12) gebruik ’n vervanging vir moedersmelk en 10% (n=6) gebruik gemengde voedingspraktyke. Daar is tot die slotsom gekom dat swanger vroue en moeders van wie bekend is dat hulle MIV-geïnfekteer is, ingelig behoort te word oor die babavoedingspraktyk aanbeveel deur die nasionale of subnasionale owerheid vir die verbetering van MIVvrye oorlewing van babas wat aan die MIV blootgestel is. Dit sluit in inligting oor die risiko’s en voordele van verskeie babavoedingsopsies gebaseer op plaaslike assesserings en leiding ten opsigte van die kies van die geskikste opsie vir hulle eie situasie.

Despite expansive scale-up of prevention of mother-to-child transmission (PMTCT) of HIV services in Kenya over the last decade, Kenya remains one of the countries contributing high numbers of children living with HIV globally and among the 22 PMTCT global plan priority countries. Using a mixed methods approach this study examined enabling factors –individual, social and structural – that enhance utilization of and adherence to PMTCT services in a plural urban setting in Kenya. The study was conducted from October-December of 2012 at St. Mary’s Mission Hospital, Lang’ata. HIV-positive birthmothers whose infants were HIV-negative at the time of the study were purposively selected to participate. All informants completed an interviewer-administered questionnaire (n = 55) and a subset (n = 15) participated in in-depth interviews. Contrary to the assertions of multiple studies that failures of PMTCT programs are a result of inadequate knowledge of mother-to-child transmission and PMTCT interventions, lack of support and acceptance by family and community, as well as poor quality of services, this study found these factors to be statistically insignificant in explaining PMTCT achievements. The study further found that HIV/AIDS related stigma and gender imbalances create many missed opportunities for HIV-positive mothers to apply acquired knowledge on mother-to-child transmission and PMTCT interventions, mobilize support from family and community, and access more affordable care. Factors found to influence women’s decisions to utilize and adhere to PMTCT services include supportive counseling, striving for motherhood, maternal attachment and concern for the child’s wellbeing, assurance of confidentiality and testimonials of other successful mothers. Based on the study findings, policy recommendations have been proposed along with suggestions for future research.

This thesis assesses the effectiveness of the National Prevention of Mother to Child Transmission of HIV (PMTCT) programme in 3 sites in South Africa, and the quality of infant feeding counselling across four countries, Botswana, Kenya, Malawi and Uganda . Implementation and outcome of PMTCT services were very different across the 3 sites. The Paarl site is achieving results comparable to clinical trial studies with a HIV-free survival rate of 85% at 36 weeks, while Umlazi is somewhat lower (74%) and Rietvlei, with HIV-free survival of 64%. Maternal viral load, prematurity and site were independent risk factors for infection and/or death. The regression analysis suggests that some of this difference is explained by the differences in quality of health systems across the sites. Traditional risk factors (e.g. viral load, prematurity) do not seem to explain the substantial differences in HIV-free survival between the Paarl and Rietvlei sites. The overall mortality rate for HIV exposed infants in this cohort was 155 per 1000 live births at 36 weeks, a level higher than most other HIV exposed cohorts. The excess mortality is occurring almost completely amongst HIV infected infants who had a nine fold increased risk of mortality compared with HIV exposed but HIV negative infants. There was no significant difference in 36 week survival rates between those HIV exposed but uninfected infants and those who were not HIV exposed, Hazard ratio 0.7 (95% CI 0.3-1.5). With respect to HIV and infant feeding most health workers across the four countries (234/334, 70%) were unable to correctly estimate the transmission risks of breastfeeding. Exposure to PMTCT training made little difference to this. Infant feeding options were mentioned in 307 out of 640 (48%) observations of PMTCT counselling session and in only 35 (5.5%) were infant feeding issues discussed in any depth; of these 19 (54.3%) were rated as poor. South Africa was similar with only two out of thirty four HIV positive mothers being asked about essential conditions for safe formula feeding before a decision was made. This body of work has demonstrated that the gap between efficacy and effectiveness can be significant.

<p>Disclosure of HIV positive status to male partners is well established as a key element in the success of prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV programmes, as it helps improve adherence to ARVs by the women within these programme. However, partner notification rates remain low in the urban areas of Lusaka, Zambia against a high HIV prevalence of 25%. The purpose of this study was to explore the timing of disclosure as part of the process of disclosure amongst women who were part of the PMTCT services at Kaulu health centre in Lusaka. An exploratory descriptive study using qualitative research methods was conducted. 15 women, who were attending the Kaulu health centre PMTCT programme, were requested to participate in a semi-structured interview. The women, who were purposively selected with the aid of the health centre‟s PMTCT focal point nurse, had to have disclosed their HIV positive status to their partner, either before or during the course of their pregnancy or after delivery. To increase rigour,&nbsp / individual interviews were conducted with 5 health workers associated with the PMTCT programme so as to obtain their perspective and experiences on the issue of HIV disclosure amongst their PMTCT patients. Participation in the study was voluntary and all information obtained during the course of the interviews remained confidential and secure. Potential participants were each provided with an explanation of the purpose and process of the study and their informed written consent obtained before the researcher embarked on the interviews. Content analysis of the transcripts was done so as to develop coding categories and identify emerging themes. Disclosure to male partners is an important step in PMTCT and facilitates adherence to HIV care for the family and should be done as early as possible after the woman receives her HIV test result, though there exists a range of alternative times when it can be done. The relationship existing between a couple is very important in determining the timing of when a woman chooses to disclose. PMTCT services need to provide ongoing counselling for HIV positive women during pregnancy and after giving birth that supports, informs and equips them with the necessary skills to make an informed and timely decision about disclosure to a partner. In addition, the PMTCT service providers need to be encouraged to implement couple counselling as a strategy to facilitate disclosure as well as establishment of a peer support network for HIV positive pregnant women. The study findings will be used to contribute to health workers‟ capacity to support women manage the disclosure process to their male partners, thus helping to increase the disclosure rate and also contributing to improving the positive effect of the PMTCT services, in Lusaka, Zambia</p>

<p>Disclosure of HIV positive status to male partners is well established as a key element in the success of prevention of mother to child transmission of HIV programmes, as it helps improve adherence to ARVs by the women within these programme. However, partner notification rates remain low in the urban areas of Lusaka, Zambia against a high HIV prevalence of 25%. The purpose of this study was to explore the timing of disclosure as part of the process of disclosure amongst women who were part of the PMTCT services at Kaulu health centre in Lusaka. An exploratory descriptive study using qualitative research methods was conducted. 15 women, who were attending the Kaulu health centre PMTCT programme, were requested to participate in a semi-structured interview. The women, who were purposively selected with the aid of the health centre‟s PMTCT focal point nurse, had to have disclosed their HIV positive status to their partner, either before or during the course of their pregnancy or after delivery. To increase rigour,&nbsp / individual interviews were conducted with 5 health workers associated with the PMTCT programme so as to obtain their perspective and experiences on the issue of HIV disclosure amongst their PMTCT patients. Participation in the study was voluntary and all information obtained during the course of the interviews remained confidential and secure. Potential participants were each provided with an explanation of the purpose and process of the study and their informed written consent obtained before the researcher embarked on the interviews. Content analysis of the transcripts was done so as to develop coding categories and identify emerging themes. Disclosure to male partners is an important step in PMTCT and facilitates adherence to HIV care for the family and should be done as early as possible after the woman receives her HIV test result, though there exists a range of alternative times when it can be done. The relationship existing between a couple is very important in determining the timing of when a woman chooses to disclose. PMTCT services need to provide ongoing counselling for HIV positive women during pregnancy and after giving birth that supports, informs and equips them with the necessary skills to make an informed and timely decision about disclosure to a partner. In addition, the PMTCT service providers need to be encouraged to implement couple counselling as a strategy to facilitate disclosure as well as establishment of a peer support network for HIV positive pregnant women. The study findings will be used to contribute to health workers‟ capacity to support women manage the disclosure process to their male partners, thus helping to increase the disclosure rate and also contributing to improving the positive effect of the PMTCT services, in Lusaka, Zambia</p>