L'identité numérique des personnes est devenue une des plus importantes valeurs immatérielles dans la vie quotidienne, la réputation personnelle, académique, le profil et le déroulement de la carrière professionnelle, mais encore plus que ça, la liberté d'être sur la toile sans avoir peur de l'usurpation de notre identité est l'inspiration de ce travail de thèse. Dans le monde numérique les frontières n'existent plus, les interactions avec les personnes de tout le monde sont de plus en plus courantes, le commerce électronique, les réseaux sociaux, les démarches administratives en ligne, l’échange d’information entre pays et gouvernements, et aussi les rapports romantiques dans les applications mobiles, c’est aussi la raison d’être une étude de droit comparé entre le droit mexicain, français et américain. Dans la première partie nous développons les éléments de l’identité numérique, les données personnelles comprises dans l’ensemble de ce concept qui est à la fois mal compris et en conséquence mal protégé mais aussi très importante dans le développement de l’économie numérique. La deuxième partie, comprend les interprétations de l’identité numérique dans le domaine du droit pénal du droit administratif et du droit civil et commercial. Il y a notamment des différences entre l’interprétation qui fait le droit pénal de l’identité en tant que bien juridique protégé ; en comparaison avec les interprétations du droit administratif qui protège l’identité numérique en tant que donnée personnelle, la mise en œuvre de la reconnaissance internationale du droit à la protection des données à caractère personnel et devient la régulation qui définit les règles de leur traitement, ainsi qui impose les sanctions au traitement illicite et de l’autre côté le droit civil qui d’une part reconnait le droit de la personnalité et le droit à l’image. La troisième partie est dédiée à l’étude de l’identité numérique comme source d’évolution du droit, ainsi qu’aux atteintes à l’ensemble des éléments qui font partie de cette identité. Le droit est toujours derrière l’innovation et malgré tout, à côté de l’évolution de l’humanité, des inventions, de la technologie et du développement, il existe l’évolution des actes illicites et de moyens de commission des délits dans l’endroit numérique. Même si le phénomène de l’usurpation d’identité n’est pas nouveau, il a surmonté dans le monde dans les cinq dernières années grâce aux nouvelles technologies qui permettent de créer, modifier, altérer, falsifier, reproduire et diffuser les données personnelles, photos et identifiants de façon très rapide et au niveau mondial, ce qui permet de vendre dans le marché noir plein de données personnelles pour après faire différents types d’utilisation illicite, notamment l’usurpation d’identité. Ainsi comme la nouvelle technologie sert à la sophistication des activités illicites, il existe un travail des entreprises de sécurité informatique pour lutter de façon technique contre les atteintes aux systèmes d’information, aux réseaux et à l’information, en particulier les atteintes aux données personnelles, donc, à la fin de cette partie on fait une étude des outils numériques crées à cet effet. / The digital identity has become one of the most important immaterial values in everyday life, the personal and academic reputation, the professional profile, but even more than that, the freedom to be on the web without to be afraid of the usurpation of our identity is the inspiration of this thesis work. In the digital world, borders no longer exist, interactions with people around the world are becoming more common, e-commerce, social networks, online procedures, information exchange between countries and governments, and also personal relationships in mobile applications, this is also the reason for being a comparative law study between Mexican, French and American law. In the first part, we develop the elements of digital identity, the personal data included in the whole of this concept which is both misunderstood and therefore poorly protected but also very important in the development of the digital economy. The second part, understands the interpretations of digital identity in the field of criminal law administrative law and civil and commercial law. In particular, there are differences between the interpretation of the criminal law of identity as protected legal property; in comparison with interpretations of the administrative law that protects the digital identity as personal data, the implementation of international recognition of the right to the protection of personal data and becomes the regulation that defines the rules of their treatment, thus imposing sanctions on the unlawful treatment and on the other side the civil right which a party recognizes the right of the personality and the right to the personal image. The third part is dedicated to the study of digital identity as a source of evolution of the law, as well as to the attacks on all the elements that are part of this identity. Law is always behind innovation and yet, alongside the evolution of humanity, inventions, technology and development, there is the evolution of illicit acts and means of committing crimes in the world digital environment. Even though the phenomenon of identity theft is not new, it has overcome in the world in the last five years thanks to new technologies that allow to create, modify, alter, falsify, reproduce and disseminate personal data, photos and identifiers in a very fast and global way, which allows to sell in the deep web full of personal data for later to make different types of illegal use, including identity theft. As the new technology is used for the sophistication of illicit activities, there is a work of computer security companies to fight technically against attacks on information systems, networks and information, especially data breaches of personal data, so at the end of this part we do a study of digital tools created for this purpose.

Woodpeckers create nesting cavities for other birds and animals in forests. This creates dynamic interactions between both woodpeckers and these other animals. Using video cameras, we documented direct behavioral interactions between nesting woodpeckers and other animals in the Eastern Washington Cascades during the 2015 and 2016 breeding seasons. Additionally, we offered 937 students in a General Biology laboratory course to participate in this original research opportunity and described and the impact the experience had on the participants as well as the researchers. In 2015, Western Blubebirds took over two active Black-backed Woodpecker nests by physically attacking the woodpeckers. In 2016, almost half of the woodpecker nests were reused by other animals, with Western Bluebirds being are most common SCU. We found that some nests we reused within minutes to hours of vacancy. However, we were not able to significantly predict nest reuse or the presence of other animals at the nest. Parent woodpeckers towards avian cavity nesters when compared to rodent, predators, and other woodpeckers. Our fine-scale analysis provides a new window into behavioral interactions at woodpecker nests and same-season nest reuse, but it is limited by its scope. Thus, we suggest for larger-scale video studies examining behavioral interactions around the nest. About 15% of students in the course participated in our research, and we found that students accurately recorded data approximately 90% of the time. Most students came away from the experience with a more positive attitude towards undergraduate research and were able to restate the main research question. However, many students had difficulty understanding their role as a data collector. We suggest making the experience mandatory to include all students and placing a greater emphasis on the process of science.

L’usurpation politique sous l’Empire romain a fait l’objet d’approches historiographiques récentes et novatrices avec les travaux, notamment, d’Egon Flaig et de Joachim Szidat, au point d’occuper une place essentielle dans la définition du pouvoir impérial. Le travail ici mené se propose de faire une étude en deux temps de ce phénomène, qui exista avant d’être nommé tardivement (au IVè siècle). Une première partie se propose d’en étudier le vocabulaire riche et varié à travers l’examen de l’ensemble des sources disponibles considérées dans leur évolution chronologique afin de voir peu à peu émerger ce concept politique et d’en proposer une définition tenant compte de cette analyse philologique. La lecture des différents auteurs de la fin de la République et des premiers siècles de l’Empire, mais aussi des époques plus tardives, permettent de mettre en évidence la structuration de leur pensée politique du phénomène, tant dans le domaine des idées abstraites reprises de la philosophie grecque (Platon et Aristote), que dans le recours au mythe comme clé d’analyse (depuis Virgile jusqu’à Sénèque).A cette étude des mots et des idées succède une seconde partie qui se donne pour but d’appliquer la définition proposée dans la première partie à l’étude de la période du Haut-Empire. Les usurpations y sont recensées d’une façon exhaustive en prenant en compte non seulement celles qui eurent effectivement lieu (au demeurant peu nombreuses) mais aussi toutes celles qui firent l’objet d’un soupçon et d’une mise en accusation. Ainsi sont mis en valeur des types de profils de candidats, des scénarios de conquête du pouvoir et de légitimation de celui-ci, mais aussi des techniques de contrôle et de conservation du pouvoir de la part de ceux qui se présentent comme des détenteurs légitimes parce qu’ils prétendent incarner le consensus de tous les citoyens de l’Empire. L’usurpation se révèle alors comme étant un phénomène politique central dont la menace réapparaît chaque fois que ce consensus faiblit, et qui s’efface lorsque ce consensus est rétabli. Moteur de l’évolution politique, il est un moyen d’expérimenter des modèles de conquête et de conservation du pouvoir faisant office d'exempla, et dont la prise en compte permet de modifier quelque peu la périodisation par règne. / Political usurpation in the days of the Roman Empire has been the topic of many recent and innovative historiographical approaches, among which those of Egon Flaig and Joachim Szidat, to the point of becoming a defining feature of imperial power. This political phenomenon, whose existence preceedes its late denomination as « usurpatio » (during the IVth century AD) is what this present work will attempt to study in a two-step approach.The first step consists in studying the rich and varied vocabulary of usurpation through the examination of all available sources, which will be reviewed in chronological order, so as to observe the gradual emergence of this political concept and to offer a definition which takes this philological analysis into account. Besides, perusing the writings of various authors from the end of the Republic to the Principate era, as well as those from later centuries, will help bring to light the structuring of their political thought on the phenomenon, be it in the field of abstract ideas inspired from Greek classical philosophy (Plato and Aristotle) or in the use of myths as a key element of analysis (from Virgil to Seneca).The aim of the second part of this work is to apply the definition put forward in the first one to the study of the Principate era. The comprehensive list of usurpations you will find there takes into account not only those which actually happened (all in all a limited number) but also all those which fell under suspicion and resulted in an indictment. Consequently, candidate profiles start to emerge, as well as patterns of power conquest and the legitimation of it, but also techniques to control and hold that power by those who identify themselves as legitimate rulers, because they claim to embody the public consensus in the Empire.Therefore, usurpation seems to be a central political phenomenon which threatens to reappear every time that consensus is weakened, and disappears whenever it is restored. It fuels political development, it is a way of experimenting with different models of power conquest and the retainment of it. Taking it into consideration allows for a slight modification of the traditional periodising by reign.

Ce présent travail étudie la mobilisation des concepts relatifs à la légitimité et à l’usurpation dans le théâtre français classique, et a pour corpus toutes les pièces (tragédies, tragi-comédies et comédies héroïques) représentant des perturbations étatiques liées à l’usurpation entre 1630 et la fin du XVIIe siècle. Si la mise en scène de bouleversements politiques extraordinaires confère une certaine grandeur à l’œuvre dramatique, elle implique un aspect référentiel qui, surtout dans une France où l’absolutisme s’établit et s’affirme, pourrait conduire à une difficulté. Or, c’est précisément cette problématique qui assure l’efficacité propre du thème de l’usurpation. La référence idéologique et morale est elle-même mobilisable sur un plan dramaturgique et peut constituer un élément structurant de l’effet dramatique, assurer l’engrenage de l’action, et répondre à une vision poétique. En même temps, à travers ces procédés dramaturgiques, les pièces construisent leur sens qui, tout en faisant écho à l’absolutisme monarchique, peut parfois présenter un écart par rapport aux réflexions politiques contemporaines. Cette étude s’articule autour de trois concepts – le droit de régner, le devoir de régner et la volonté de régner. L’analyse de la manière concrète de leur mise en place mène à une réflexion sur l’évolution du traitement du thème durant le siècle et sur le rapport complexe entre idéologie et dramaturgie. / This piece of work studies the mobilization of concepts relating to legitimacy and usurpation in classical French theater. The corpus includes all plays (tragedies, tragi-comedies and heroic comedies) representing state-level disruptions linked to usurpation from 1630 to the end of the seventeenth century. If the representation of extraordinary political disorders makes the subject of a play more elevated, it also implies a referential dimension that could give rise to a complication, especially in a France where absolutism was taking shape. Yet it is precisely this problem that warrants the value of the theme of usurpation. Once dramaturgically mobilized, the ideological and moral reference constitutes a structural element that creates the dramatic effect, which ensures the circle of the action and echoes a poetic vision. At the same time, through these dramaturgical features, the plays construct their meaning, which besides reflecting absolutist ideology can sometimes deviate from contemporary political thought. This study hinges on three concepts – the right to rule, the duty to rule and the will to rule. The analysis of the concrete means of their implementation is followed by a reflection on the evolution of the treatment of the theme throughout the century as well as on the complex relationship between ideology and dramaturgy.

This thesis is an attempt to address the surprising lack of study into the question of usurpation in late antiquity. During a period defined by a textual corpus (289-389), the thesis looks at how usurpers and usurpation were presented in the panegyrics delivered to emperors and their courts. That usurpation features very heavily in this corpus should tell us something in itself, but it is a feature of these texts which has hardly been observed. The thesis shows how the panegyrics employed aggressive rhetorical tactics that sought not to bury usurpers in silence but rather to glory in their destruction and to create characters for the usurpers and their regimes that were designed to reinforce the legitimacy claims of the victorious emperor. The language of the panegyrics concerning usurpers and usurpation is thus virtually worthless as a tool to reconstruct the historical actualities of the people and times that they discuss. It cannot be used, as some scholars have done, to give insight into the working of particular usurpations. But the study also demonstrates that the panegyrics are far too valuable a body of sources to simply ignore, as many more scholars have tended to do. The panegyrics demonstrate the beginnings of the processes of memory sanction, or damnatio memoriae, that were imposed upon defeated usurpers and, as such, give us a valuable insight into how imperial Romans recorded their history and conceived of the power structures through which they were governed. Panegyrics are vital to our understanding of usurpers and usurpation because they are the first step in the process of understanding why our narrative sources are so unreliable concerning such men.

Soberba e humildade em Agostinho são analisadas neste trabalho por meio de uma inter-relação entre os métodos anagógico/Pátria-Via e o Trinitário, métodos que, segundo cremos, foram utilizados por Agostinho. A aplicação deste método nos levará a notar que soberba e humildade só podem ser entendidas uma à luz da outra, porque possuem uma estrutura simetricamente proporcional: a soberba é a enfermidade radical da condição humana, e a humildade o seu remédio adequado. Assim, a soberba, no nível do ser, corresponde a uma usurpação, uma pretensão de roubar o que é próprio de Deus, a autonomia e independência no ser; no nível do conhecimento, consiste numa presunção de valer por si mesmo, o que leva a um movimento de afastamento da verdade interior, tornando o homem cego no mais profundo de sua alma; e finalmente, no nível do querer, corresponde a uma injustiça, pois consiste na causa do primeiro mau uso do livre-arbítrio, que levou ao rompimento da ordem estabelecida por Deus na lei eterna. A humildade, em simetria invertida, corresponde, no nível do ser, a um aniquilamento voluntário, pelo qual o Cristo abaixa-se de sua natureza igual a Deus, assumindo uma natureza que lhe é inferior, a natureza humana; no nível do conhecimento, se entende como confissão a respeito da verdade sobre Deus e sobre o próprio homem, da sua condição de criatura e pecador; e finalmente, no nível do querer, como o caminho pelo qual o Cristo, por meio de sua livre obediência até a morte de cruz e posterior ressurreição, restabelece a justiça perdida na primeira desobediência à lei eterna. / Pride and humility in Augustine are analyzed in this work through an inter-relationship between the anagogical/homeland-Way (Patria-Via) and Trinitarian methods, which we believe were used by Augustine. Applying this method will lead us to note that pride and humility can only be understood in the light of one another, because they have a symmetrically proportional structure: pride is the radical disease of the human condition, and humility its adequate remedy. Thus, the pride, in the level of being, represents an usurpation, a desire to steal what is proper to God, the autonomy and independence in being; in the level of knowledge, is a presumption of worth by himself/herself, which leads a movement away from inner truth, making the man blind in the depths of his soul; and finally, at the level of wanting, corresponds to an injustice because it is the cause of the first misuse of free will, which led to the breakup of the order established by God in the eternal law. Humility, in inverted symmetry, corresponds, at the level of being, to a voluntary destruction, by which Christ stoops of his nature equal with Gods, taking a nature that is lower, the human nature; in the level of knowledge, it is understood as a confession regarding the truth about God and man himself, of his condition of sinful creature; and finally, at the level of wanting, as the path by which Christ, through his free obedience unto death on a cross and subsequent resurrection, restores justice lost in the first disobedience to the eternal law.

Soberba e humildade em Agostinho são analisadas neste trabalho por meio de uma inter-relação entre os métodos anagógico/Pátria-Via e o Trinitário, métodos que, segundo cremos, foram utilizados por Agostinho. A aplicação deste método nos levará a notar que soberba e humildade só podem ser entendidas uma à luz da outra, porque possuem uma estrutura simetricamente proporcional: a soberba é a enfermidade radical da condição humana, e a humildade o seu remédio adequado. Assim, a soberba, no nível do ser, corresponde a uma usurpação, uma pretensão de roubar o que é próprio de Deus, a autonomia e independência no ser; no nível do conhecimento, consiste numa presunção de valer por si mesmo, o que leva a um movimento de afastamento da verdade interior, tornando o homem cego no mais profundo de sua alma; e finalmente, no nível do querer, corresponde a uma injustiça, pois consiste na causa do primeiro mau uso do livre-arbítrio, que levou ao rompimento da ordem estabelecida por Deus na lei eterna. A humildade, em simetria invertida, corresponde, no nível do ser, a um aniquilamento voluntário, pelo qual o Cristo abaixa-se de sua natureza igual a Deus, assumindo uma natureza que lhe é inferior, a natureza humana; no nível do conhecimento, se entende como confissão a respeito da verdade sobre Deus e sobre o próprio homem, da sua condição de criatura e pecador; e finalmente, no nível do querer, como o caminho pelo qual o Cristo, por meio de sua livre obediência até a morte de cruz e posterior ressurreição, restabelece a justiça perdida na primeira desobediência à lei eterna. / Pride and humility in Augustine are analyzed in this work through an inter-relationship between the anagogical/homeland-Way (Patria-Via) and Trinitarian methods, which we believe were used by Augustine. Applying this method will lead us to note that pride and humility can only be understood in the light of one another, because they have a symmetrically proportional structure: pride is the radical disease of the human condition, and humility its adequate remedy. Thus, the pride, in the level of being, represents an usurpation, a desire to steal what is proper to God, the autonomy and independence in being; in the level of knowledge, is a presumption of worth by himself/herself, which leads a movement away from inner truth, making the man blind in the depths of his soul; and finally, at the level of wanting, corresponds to an injustice because it is the cause of the first misuse of free will, which led to the breakup of the order established by God in the eternal law. Humility, in inverted symmetry, corresponds, at the level of being, to a voluntary destruction, by which Christ stoops of his nature equal with Gods, taking a nature that is lower, the human nature; in the level of knowledge, it is understood as a confession regarding the truth about God and man himself, of his condition of sinful creature; and finally, at the level of wanting, as the path by which Christ, through his free obedience unto death on a cross and subsequent resurrection, restores justice lost in the first disobedience to the eternal law.

<p>The aim of this thesis was to study the strategies that Kamraterna (‘the Comrades’), an association for Stockholm’s policemen, and the Swedish Policemen’s Union employed in order to solve the issue of women in police service in the years 1957-1971. I have dealt with the attitudes they had to women in police service and the conceptions of gender that were expressed. The trade unions’ way of trying to solve the issue of women’s service and position in the organisation and Kamraterna’s actions vis-à-vis their female members have also been in focus. Finally, I have also studied the way in which the police profession was made masculine and feminine and how this could be used as a part of the strategies. </p><p>Women’s entrance into the police profession on the same terms as men created and made visible the gender structures in the police force. The male police officers saw their rights threatened, if the female labour could be judged differently and hence be promoted more rapidly. This conflict made conceptions of male and female qualities visible, and above all in Kamraterna, a struggle was started to maintain male police officers’ privileges and rights. </p><p>The unions emphasised that women would have to be employed on equal terms and that equal pay must imply equal work. Women were however considered to be best suited for social police work and work with women and children, while men were chiefly associated with the parts of the profession involving physical strength and violence. It was difficult to implement the principle of equal terms in practice, since there was a basic idea that women were different. Both Kamraterna and the Swedish Policemen’s Union used dual closure in order to solve this dilemma. Kamraterna’s usurpation was intended to influence the police commissioner and to unite the members, including the women, thereby creating a collective unity about the issue of the female police officers’ posts and work. They tried to remove the women from foot patrol work by having them relocated to other departments with civil duties. In this way they endeavoured to keep the patrol work as an exclusively male area by resorting to exclusion. When the National Police Board started experimental work in 1969 with female police officers being stationed in special units with civil duties, the Swedish Policemen’s Union supported this effort and tried to see to it that the instructions were followed. The Policemen’s Union thus employed exclusion. Excluding women from parts of the profession meant that the unions used a demarcationary strategy resulting in a gendered division of labour being created rather than the women being entirely excluded from the police profession. The patrol work was the part of the police profession that women ought not to have access to, and this was linked to masculine qualities and symbolism. Words like physical strength, strenuous service and violence were related to the patrol work. The uniforms and weapons underscored the masculine connotations of the patrol work. A hegemonic masculinity was created here, which could be used as a means for excluding female police officers. The women’s uniforms looked different and their weapons were not the same, which should have made it more difficult for them to be regarded as real police officers. </p>

The aim of this thesis was to study the strategies that Kamraterna (‘the Comrades’), an association for Stockholm’s policemen, and the Swedish Policemen’s Union employed in order to solve the issue of women in police service in the years 1957-1971. I have dealt with the attitudes they had to women in police service and the conceptions of gender that were expressed. The trade unions’ way of trying to solve the issue of women’s service and position in the organisation and Kamraterna’s actions vis-à-vis their female members have also been in focus. Finally, I have also studied the way in which the police profession was made masculine and feminine and how this could be used as a part of the strategies. Women’s entrance into the police profession on the same terms as men created and made visible the gender structures in the police force. The male police officers saw their rights threatened, if the female labour could be judged differently and hence be promoted more rapidly. This conflict made conceptions of male and female qualities visible, and above all in Kamraterna, a struggle was started to maintain male police officers’ privileges and rights. The unions emphasised that women would have to be employed on equal terms and that equal pay must imply equal work. Women were however considered to be best suited for social police work and work with women and children, while men were chiefly associated with the parts of the profession involving physical strength and violence. It was difficult to implement the principle of equal terms in practice, since there was a basic idea that women were different. Both Kamraterna and the Swedish Policemen’s Union used dual closure in order to solve this dilemma. Kamraterna’s usurpation was intended to influence the police commissioner and to unite the members, including the women, thereby creating a collective unity about the issue of the female police officers’ posts and work. They tried to remove the women from foot patrol work by having them relocated to other departments with civil duties. In this way they endeavoured to keep the patrol work as an exclusively male area by resorting to exclusion. When the National Police Board started experimental work in 1969 with female police officers being stationed in special units with civil duties, the Swedish Policemen’s Union supported this effort and tried to see to it that the instructions were followed. The Policemen’s Union thus employed exclusion. Excluding women from parts of the profession meant that the unions used a demarcationary strategy resulting in a gendered division of labour being created rather than the women being entirely excluded from the police profession. The patrol work was the part of the police profession that women ought not to have access to, and this was linked to masculine qualities and symbolism. Words like physical strength, strenuous service and violence were related to the patrol work. The uniforms and weapons underscored the masculine connotations of the patrol work. A hegemonic masculinity was created here, which could be used as a means for excluding female police officers. The women’s uniforms looked different and their weapons were not the same, which should have made it more difficult for them to be regarded as real police officers.

En el presente trabajo de investigación de tipo cualitativo se realizó un análisis para lograr establecer el apartado a considerar para delimitar que el auto de sobreseimiento no califica como una causal de interrupción del proceso de prescripción adquisitiva de dominio para el mismo, se ha comenzado analizando las instituciones jurídicas de la prescripción adquisitiva de dominio y la usurpación en relación al auto de sobreseimiento y si el auto de sobreseimiento en una denuncia de usurpación interrumpe la prescripción adquisitiva de dominio para posteriormente sustentar las razones de la búsqueda de dicho apartado para garantizar la posición originaria obtenida por la usucapión, sobre la propiedad y que no se afecte el derecho de usucapir ante un auto que declara nula la responsabilidad penal sobre el proceso. / In this qualitative research study, an analysis was conducted to establish the criteria for determining that a dismissal order does not qualify as a ground for interrupting the adverse possession process. The study began by examining the legal institutions of adverse possession and usurpation in relation to a dismissal order, specifically whether a dismissal order in a usurpation complaint interrupts the adverse possession process. Subsequently, the reasons for seeking this clarification were presented to ensure the preservation of the original position obtained through adverse possession, safeguarding the right to adverse possession even when there’s an order declaring criminal liability null and void in the process.