L’optogénétique est une technique prometteuse pour la modulation de l’activité neuronale. Par l’insertion d’une opsine microbienne dans la membrane plasmique de neurones et par son activation photonique, il devient possible de réguler l’activité neuronale avec une grande résolution temporelle et spatiale. Beaucoup de travaux ont été faits pour caractériser et synthétiser de nouvelles opsines. Ainsi, plusieurs variétés d’opsines sont désormais disponibles, chacune présentant des cinétiques et sensibilités à des longueurs d’onde différentes. En effet, il existe des constructions optogénétiques permettant de moduler à la hausse ou à la baisse l’activité neuronale, telles la channelrhodopsine-2 (ChR2) ou la halorhodopsine (NpHR), respectivement. Les promesses de cette technologie incluent le potentiel de stimuler une région restreinte du cerveau, et ce, de façon réversible. Toutefois, peu d’applications en ce sens ont été réalisées, cette technique étant limitée par l’absorption et la diffusion de la lumière dans les tissus. Ce mémoire présente la conception d’une fibre optique illuminant à un angle de 90° à sa sortie, capable de guider la lumière à des structures bien précises dans le système nerveux central. Nous avons conduit des tests in vivo dans le système visuel de souris transgéniques exprimant la ChR2 dans l’ensemble du système nerveux central. Dans le système visuel, les signaux rétiniens sont conduits au corps genouillé latéral (CGL) avant d’être relayés au cortex visuel primaire (V1). Pour valider la capacité de mon montage optogénétique à stimuler spécifiquement une sous-population de neurones, nous avons tiré profit de l’organisation rétinotopique existant dans le système visuel. En stimulant optogénétiquement le CGL et en tournant la fibre optique sur elle-même à l’aide d’un moteur, il devient possible de stimuler séquentiellement différentes portions de cette structure thalamique et conséquemment, différentes représentations du champ visuel. L’activation des projections thalamiques sera enregistrée au niveau de l’aire V1 à l’aide de l’imagerie optique intrinsèque, une technique qui permet d’imager les variations de la concentration d’oxygène et du volume sanguin dans le tissu neuronal, sur une grande surface corticale. Comme l’organisation rétinotopique est maintenue au niveau de l’aire V1, l’espace activé au niveau du cortex révèlera l’étendue spatiale de notre stimulation optogénétique du CGL. Les expériences in vivo démontrèrent qu’en déplaçant la fibre optique dans le CGL, il nous était possible de stimuler différents sous- ensembles de neurones dans cette structure thalamique. En conclusion, cette étude montre notre capacité à développer un système à base de fibre optique capable de stimuler optogénétiquement une population de neurone avec une grande précision spatiale. / Optogentics is a promising technic for neuronal activity modulation. By inserting a microbial opsin in the plasma membrane and by its photonic activation, it is possible to regulate neuronal activity with high temporal and spatial resolution. A lot of work has been done to characterize and synthetize new opsins. Thus, a wide variety of opsins are now available, presenting different kinetics and sensibility to specific wavelengths. Indeed, different opsins can either increase or decrease neuronal activity such as channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2) or halorhodopsin (NpHR), respectively. This technology has the potential to stimulate a specific region within the brain in a highly reversible manner. However, little work was accomplished in this way, because to limitations due to absorption and scattering of light in biological tissue. This master’s thesis presents the conception of a side-firing optical fiber, capable of guiding light to specific structures within the brain. We conducted in vivo experiments in the visual system of transgenic mice expressing ChR2 in the entire central nervous system. In the visual system, retinal inputs are relayed to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) before reaching the primary visual cortex (V1). To validate the capacity of the designed optogenetic assembly to stimulate specific sub-populations of neurons, we took advantage of the retinotopic organization existing in the visual system. By optogenetically stimulating the LGN and rotating the optical fiber around its axis with a motor, it is possible to sequentially stimulate different portions of this thalamic structure and consequently, different portions of the visual field. Activation of thalamic projections will be recorded in area V1 using intrinsic optical imaging, a technic allowing to image variations of blood oxygenation and blood volume in neuronal tissue over large cortical areas. Activation at the level of the cortex will reveal the spatial extent of the optogenetic stimulation in the LGN as retinotopic organization is maintained in V1 cortical area. In vivo experiments showed that displacing the optical fiber in the LGN allowed stimulation of different neuronal populations within this thalamic structure. In conclusion, this study demonstrates our capacity to develop a fiber-based system capable of optogenetically stimulating neuronal tissue with high spatial precision.

Visual perception plays a fundamental role in a prospective learner’s ability to learn to read and spell; as well as in the accomplishment of written and numeracy tasks. Aspects of visual perception are facilitating functions and skills which a learner requires for acquiring basic literacy and numeracy proficiency. Yet, despite this importance, there exists no test that is standardised for the South African Foundation Phase population which adequately measures distinct visual perceptual aspects of individual learners. The study was undertaken in an attempt to alleviate the dilemma of the South African Foundation Phase learners who tend to experience visual perceptual challenges that hamper their level of academic learning, performance and competency. Firstly, the literature study explored the construct of visual perception and focussed on the relationship between vision, visual perception and academic learning, performance and competency. Secondly, in order to adequately measure the South African Foundation Phase population’s visual perceptual level of proficiency a new test was developed. Based on the literature study and the empirical investigation recommendations to educational psychologists, teachers, parents and learners have been made. / Educational Studies / M.Ed. (Guidance and Counselling)

The aim of the thesis was to find occupational therapy tests, or part thereof which could be used to test various inputs perception function of CNS. In cooperation with child and adult occupational therapists from Motol Hospital were researched occupational therapy various standardized tests designed to test children and adults. Then of them selected those tests (or a portion thereof) that contain the testing of individual sensory modalities of adult patients. Ultimately, these tests were applied to a group of adult population and evaluated. The whole work was compiled in the form of research. It was assumed that in the sets occupational therapy standardized tests, there are tests or parts that are able to focus their testing different modalities of perception function of the CNS within the cortical functions.

O sistema visual exerce importante papel para o reconhecimento do ambiente externo e para estabelecer relações entre objetos, tempo e espaço. Além disso, ele está relacionado com o controle e o desempenho motor. O objetivo deste estudo foi verificar se a privação de luz ambiente alteraria o desempenho e as respostas fisiológicas e psicológicas durante dois modelos de exercício, um fechado e um aberto. Onze ciclistas formaram o grupo de exercício fechado (GEF) e completaram um teste de 20 km, enquanto doze indivíduos ativos formaram o grupo de exercício aberto (GEA) e executaram um teste de potência constante até a exaustão (TWC). Após teste incremental máximo, GEF e GEA realizaram exercício na presença (controle) ou privação (experimental) de luz ambiente, em ordem balanceada. Respostas de desempenho, VE, VO2, VCO2 RER, FC, eletromiografia do músculo vato lateral (EMG), percepção subjetiva de esforço (PSE) e pensamento associado ao exercício (PAE) foram obtidas durante, e no ponto final do exercício, em ambas as condições. O tempo total de exercício indicou a resposta de desempenho em GEF e GEA. As respostas das variáveis fisiológicas e psicológicas foram analisadas durante a realização, ou no ponto final do exercício. A média das respostas geradas durante os 20 km no GEF, e as respostas obtidas no mesmo tempo absoluto do TWC no GEA, pareado pelo menor tempo de exaustão atingido no teste, indicaram as respostas durante a execução do exercício. As respostas obtidas nos 5 segundos finais de cada exercício indicaram as respostas do ponto final do GEF e GEA. A taxa de incremento na PSE foi calculada em GEF e GEA, e o erro de predição da distância real percorrida no teste de 20 km foi obtido no GEF. No GEF, não houve efeito da privação de luz sobre o tempo para completar o teste de 20 km, porém a privação de luz gerou menores respostas (P< 0,01) na VE, VO2, VCO2, EMG e PAE, quando comparada ao controle. No ponto final do exercício, nenhuma diferença foi verificada entre as condições. A privação de luz não alterou a taxa de elevação da PSE ou o erro de predição da distância percorrida. No GEA a privação de luz ambiente reduziu o tempo de exaustão (P< 0,05) no TWC e aumentou a resposta do VO2 e EMG (P< 0,05). Entretanto, não foi observado efeito da privação de luz na VE, VCO2 e FC. No ponto final do exercício observou-se menor EMG com a privação de luz (P< 0,03), mas nenhuma diferença nas demais variáveis foi observada. Maior taxa de elevação na PSE foi observada em ambiente privado de luz. Os resultados do presente estudo podem ser interpretados de acordo com a existência de um \"relógio biológico interno\" que calcula a duração tolerável do exercício de acordo com a aproximação ao ponto final do exercício, sugerindo que os efeitos da privação de luz sobre o desempenho possam depender da presença de um ponto final previamente conhecido / The visual system plays an important role for the environment recognition as well as to set objects, time and space relationships. Furthermore, the visual system is related to the motor learning and performance. The aim of this study was to verify if light deprivation environment would alter performance, and physiological and psychological responses to different exercise modes, closed- and open-loop exercises. Eleven cyclists were the closed-loop exercise group (CLE) and performed a 20 km time trial, while twelve active individuals were the open-loop exercise group (OLE) and cycled to exhaustion during a constant workload exercise. After maximal incremental test CLE and OLE groups performed exercise in a control and experimental condition (i.e. under light deprivation), in a counterbalanced fashion. Performance responses and responses of VE, VO2, VCO2 RER, HR, eletromyography of the vastus lateralis muscle (EMG), ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) and associative thoughts to exercise (ATE) were obtained during exercise and at the exercise endpoint in both the conditions. Time of exercise indicated performance responses in CLE and OLE groups. Physiological and psychological responses were analyzed either during or at the exercise endpoint. Mean responses throughout the 20 km cycling time trial and responses obtained at absolute matched time of exercise, corresponding to the shortest time to exhaustion provided responses along the exercise in CLE and OLE groups, respectively. Responses obtained during the last 5 seconds of the exercises provided responses at the exercise endpoint in both CLE and OLE groups. The rate of increase in RPE was calculated in CLE and OLE groups, and the predictive error of the distance was calculated in the CLE group. In CLE group no effect of light deprivation was observed in the time to complete the 20 km, although the lower response (P< 0.01) of VE, VO2, VCO2, EMG e ATE when compared to control condition. Neither difference was observed in variables at the exercise endpoint. Light deprivation had effect in neither rate of increase in RPE or predictive error of distance. Regarding OLE group the light deprivation decreased the time to exhaustion (P< 0.05) and increased VO2 and EMG (P< 0.05) responses. However, there was no light deprivation effect in VE, VCO2 and HR. Lower EMG was observed at the exercise endpoint in light deprivation condition (P< 0.05) than in control, but no difference was observed in the others. Greater rate of increase in RPE was detected (P< 0.05) in the light deprivation condition than in control. Results of the present study were interpreted according to a \"biological internal clock\" that calculates the tolerable exercise duraton based on the exercise endpoint approximation, suggesting that light deprivation effects on performance may depend on the presence of an exercise endpoint previously known

Descrevemos os processos de captura, criação e micromanipulação cirúrgica das moscas Chrysomya megacephala. Apresentamos os processos de geração de estímulo e registro da atividade dos dois neurônios H1 localizados na placa lobular de seu cérebro. Um primeiro resultado apresentado refere-se a acuidade de seu sistema visual. Desenvolvemos um procedimento para comparar sua taxa de disparos espontâneos com as respostas do neurônio H1 quando sujeito a estímulos de excitação e inibição. Mostramos que o sistema visual da mosca não está apenas adaptado a detectar grandes fluxos ópticos mas também, é capaz de detectar pequenas velocidades de aproximadamente 1, 5o.s-1 e de apenas 0,25o de amplitude. Estes valores mostram que a mosca é capaz de detectar deslocamentos angulares muito menores do que sua abertura omatidial, = 1 2o. Outro resultado apresentado é obtido ao estudarmos o processo de codificação-decodificação neural. Alguns sistemas sensoriais agem como um conversor analógico-digital, recebendo um estímulo S(t) e codificando-o em uma sequência de pulsos, spikes. O processo de decodificação da resposta neural consiste em receber este conjunto pulsos e gerar uma estimativa Se(t) do estmulo. Este processo requer a computação e subsequente inversão de funções de correlação de alta ordem. A dimensão das matrizes que representam estas funções pode se tornar proibitivamente grande. Apresentamos um eficiente método para reduzir estas funções de correlação. Esta aproximação tem baixo custo computacional, evita a inversão de grandes matrizes e nos da um excelente resultado para a reconstrução do estímulo. Testamos a qualidade de nossa reconstrução sobre estímulos de rotação e translação. A contribuição dos núcleos de segunda ordem para a reconstrução do estímulo é de apenas 8% da contribuição dos núcleos de primeira ordem. Entretanto, em instantes específicos, a adição destes núcleos pode representar uma contribuição de ate 100%. Finalmente, investigamos quais atributos do estímulo são codificados pelos neurônios H1. Nosso espaço de estímulos possui um conjunto da ordem de 2 × 1096 elementos. É impossível imaginar que o sistema formado pelos dois neurônios H1 seja capaz de codificar eficientemente esta enorme quantidade de elementos. É razoável considerar que este sistema seja ao menos capaz de codificar um atributo essencial do movimento, seu sentido - rotações horizontais para direita ou para esquerda. Desta forma, apresentamos dois estímulos distintos para a mosca, um no qual suas velocidades são retiradas de uma distribuição Gaussiana e outro que contem apenas o sentido deste movimento. Obtemos uma correlação da ordem de 80 - 90% entre as estimativas de ambos os estímulos, estimativas obtidas através do processo de reconstrução linear. Obtemos aproximadamente 85% de eficiência na predição do sentido deste movimento. Ao utilizarmos a Teoria da Informação, encontramos uma diferença de apenas 10% entre as taxas de informação transmitida sobre os estímulos Gaussiano e sua versão reduzida. Concluímos que a propriedade comum a estes dois estímulos, o sentido do movimento, é o atributo relevante a ser codificado pelos neurônios H1. / We describe the practices of capturing, creation, and microsurgery of the flies Chrysomya megacephala. We present the procedures of stimulus generation and recording of the activity of the two H1 neurons in the lobula plate of its brain. One first result presented is related to its visual system acuity. We developed a method to compare its spontaneous firing rate with the H1s responses to excitatory and inhibitory stimuli. We show that the flys visual system is not only adapted to detect large optic flows but is also capable to detect small velocities about 1, 5o.s-1 with just 0, 25o of amplitude. These values show that the fly is capable to detect angular displacements much smallers than its ommatidial aperture, = 1 2o. Another relevant result is attained studying the processes of neural encode-decode. Some sensorial systems act as an analog-to-digital conversor, these systems encode the input stimulus S(t) in a sequence of action potential, spikes. The decoding process of the neural response consists of capturing this set of spikes and to generate an estimate Se(t) of the stimulus. This process requires the computation and subsequent inversion of high order correlations functions. The dimension of the matrixes that represent these functions can become prohibitively large. We present an efficient method to reduce these correlation functions. This approximation has low computational cost, avoids large matrixes inversion and give to us an excellent result to the stimulus reconstruction. We tested the reconstruction quality of rotational and translational stimuli. The contribution of second order stimulus reconstruction kernels is just 8% of first order kernels contribution. However, in specific times, the addition of these kernels may represent a 100% contribution. Finally, we investigate which stimulus features are codified by the H1 neurons. The stimulus space has a set of about 2 × 1096 elements. It is impossible to imagine that the system formed by the two H1 neurons could be able to encode efficiently this amount of elements. It is reasonable to consider that this system is at least able to encode an essencial characteristic of movement, its direction horizontal rotations to the right or to the left. Therefore, we presente two different stimuli to the fly, one which have velocities taken from a Gaussian distribution and another which contains just the direction of this movement. We obtain about 80 - 90% correlation between the estimates of both stimuli, estimates obtained through linear reconstruction methods. We obtain about 85% of efficiency in the prediction of stimulus direction. We find just a 10% difference between the information rate transmitted about the Gaussian stimulus and its reduced version using Information Theory. We conclude that the common attribute of these stimuli, the direction of movement, is the relevant attribute to be codified by the H1 neurons.

O presente trabalho descreve o desenvolvimento de geradores de estímulos visuais para serem utilizados em experimentos de neurociência com invertebrados, tais como moscas. O experimento consiste na visualização de uma imagem fixa que é movida horizontalmente de acordo com os dados de estímulo recebidos. O sistema é capaz de exibir 640x480 pixels com 256 níveis intensidade a 200 frames por segundo em monitores de varredura convencional. É baseado em hardware reconfigurável (FPGA), incluindo a lógica para gerar as temporizações do vídeo, dos sinais de sincronismo, assim como da memória de vídeo. Uma lógica de controle especial foi incluída para atualizar o deslocamento horizontal da imagem, de acordo com os estímulos desejados, a uma taxa de 200 quadros por segundo. Em um dos geradores desenvolvidos, a fim de duplicar a resolução de posicionamento horizontal, passos artificiais entre-pixels foram implementados usando dois frame buffers de vídeo, contendo respectivamente os pixels ímpares e pares da imagem original a ser exibida. Esta implementação gerou um efeito visual capaz de dobrar a capacidade de posicionamento horizontal deste gerador. / This thesis describes the development of many visual stimulus generators to be used in neuroscience experiments with invertebrates such as flies. The experiment consists in the visualization of a fixed image which is moved horizontally according to the received stimulus data. The system is capable to display 640x480 pixels with 256 intensity levels at 200 frames per second on conventional raster monitors. It´s based on reconfigurable hardware (FPGA), includes the logic to generate video timings and synchronization signals as well as the video memory. Special control logic was included to update the horizontal image offsets according to the desired stimulus data at 200 fps. In one of the developed generators, with the intent to double the horizontal positioning resolution, artificial interpixel steps are implemented using two video frame buffer containing respectively the odd and the even pixels of the original image to be displayed. This implementation generates a visual effect capable to double the horizontal positioning capabilities of the generator.

Desenvolvemos um protocolo experimental para estudar a codificação do movimento horizontal pelo neurônio H1 de moscas varejeiras Chrysomya megacephala durante o voo. Tradicionalmente, o neurônio H1 é considerado puramente sensorial, e a maioria dos trabalhos tem utilizado o trem de potenciais de ação deste neurônio para explorar o código neural visual da mosca enquanto esta se encontra imobilizada (cabeça, asas, patas) e observa passivamente uma imagem que se move de maneira controlada. Nosso laboratório já dispunha de um aparato para registrar de maneira adequada a atividade do H1, enquanto a mosca imobilizada observava um padrão de barras verticais se movendo de acordo com uma sequência de velocidades previamente escolhidas pelo experimentador. Por meio de um novo suporte, especialmente desenvolvido neste trabalho, pudemos obter as medidas eletrofisiológicas quando apenas parte do corpo do inseto se encontra fixo. Além disso, conseguimos encontrar uma maneira de estimular a mosca para que esta apresentasse períodos de atividade, com batimentos de asa, similares ao voo. Utilizamos estes períodos de atividade de voo para registrar a atividade dos músculos que controlam a direção do voo. Também utilizamos microfones que captam pequenas diferenças de pressão do batimento das asas para inferir quando a mosca quer mudar a direção do voo e validamos estas medidas com o auxílio de um pequeno acelerômetro adaptado à haste de fixação da mosca. Mostramos que a taxa média de disparo do H1 é mais alta quando a mosca está voando do que quando está com as asas paradas. Além disso, a resposta ao estímulo visual é mais rápida e mais intensa quando a mosca está voando. Estes resultados são evidências de que a codificação da informação visual é diferente nos dois casos. Nossos experimentos com registro da atividade de controle motor do voo através de microfones permitiram encontrar padrões que podem ser usados para inferir a tentativa do inseto de mudar a direção do voo, em um intervalo de poucas batidas de asas e de maneira não invasiva. Esta informação poderá ser utilizada no futuro para produzir um equipamento em que a própria mosca controle o movimento da imagem em tempo real. / We developed a protocol do address the movement information coding in flying Chrysomya Megacephala by the horizontal sensitive H1neuron. H1 is traditionally considered a purely sensory neuron and his sequence of action potentials is used to explore the visual neural code while an immobilized fly passively watch a movie generated by the experimenter. We improved an apparatus to perform such experiments, that was already working in our laboratory, by developing a new holder for the fly and electrode that allowed to record from H1 while only part of the fly was fixed, keeping wings and legs free to move. Moreover we found a protocol to stimulate the fly to present long periods of wing beating activity, very similar to the insect flying. During these flying periods of activity, we also recorded from the steering muscles that control fly direction as well as from small microphones sensitive to subtle pressure variations of the beating wings when the fly try to change direction. These recordings were validated by using an accelerometer adapted to the fly fixation rod. According to our results, the firing rate of H1 increases during the flying periods. Moreover, the response to visual stimuli is faster and more intense during the flying than the response when the wings are not beating. These are evidences that the information coding is different in both cases. We could also find some patterns in the time series of the microphones recordings that allowed us to infer, in a small number of wing beatings, when the insect tries to turn and what is the turning direction. This information can be useful to perform new experiments in the future, were the fly controls in real-time the image movement.

Neurônios do córtex visual primário (V1) são seletivos à orientação, direção e freqüência espacial de estímulos apresentados em seus campos receptivos. Os últimos 40 anos acumularam uma quantidade considerável de teorias e dados sobre o processamento cortical de seletividade. Apesar disso, um consenso sobre os mecanismos que geram preferência a orientação, uma das características mais marcantes do processamento visual inicial, ainda está longe de ser atingido. Este cenário torna-se ainda mais interessante quando se considera evidências recentes de plasticidade operando em diferentes escalas temporais em estágios iniciais como V1, que resultam em uma organização dinâmica da seletividade à orientação que se pensava rígida e inflexível no córtex adulto até então. Neste trabalho, descreve-se a construção de um modelo neuronal do córtex visual de primatas composto de 6 camadas corticais representando o canal M de processamento visual. As características fisiológicas e neuroanatômicas do modelo foram derivadas a partir de dados experimentais do sistema visual de primatas. Na primeira parte deste trabalho, o perfil de seletividade à orientação do modelo é apresentado e comparado com resultados experimentais. Os neurônios modelados apresentaram diversidade em seus padrões de seletividade a orientação consistente com dados experimentais (medidos com ISO, VC, MBA). Esta diversidade reflete a heterogeneidade de classes eletrofisiológicas presente no modelo e os diferentes padrões de circuitaria laminar. Na segunda parte examina-se o papel de plasticidade de curto termo na circuitaria intracortical na alteração dinâmica dos perfis de seletividade orientação. Depressão e deslocamento da resposta na vizinhança da orientação preferida foram observados mas não aumento em pontos distantes. Os neurônios simulados apresentaram alguma diversidade nos perfis de plasticidade de curto prazo restrita a camadas com com alta densidade de células com disparo em rajada. / V1 neurons are selective for the orientation, direction and spatial frequency of stimuli presented at their receptive fields. The last 40 years have witnessed the accumulation of a considerable amount of theory and data about the cortical processing of feature selectivity. Yet the mechanisms that underly orientation preference, one of the most conspicuous features of early visual cortical processing, remain far from reaching a consensus. This landscape gets even richer with the recent recognition of different time scales of plasticity operating as early as V1 resulting in a dynamic organization of orientation selectivity previously thought to be rigid and unmodifiable in the adult cortex. In this work we present a spiking neuron model of the primate primary visual cortex composed of 6 cortical layers, representing the M channel of visual processing. The physiological and architectural properties of the model were derived from experimental data for the primate visual pathway. In the first part we present the orientation selectivity profile of the model and discuss its relationship to experimental reports. Neurons have shown a diversity of orientation selectivity dependent responses consistent with data (measured with OSI, CV, HWB). This diversity is thought to reflect the electrophysiological heterogeneity of model cortical cells and the different patterns of laminar circuitry. In the second part of this study we examine the role of shortterm plasticity of the intracortical circuitry in the dynamic modification of orientation selectivity profiles. Depression and shift around preferred orientation but not enhancement at the far flank of the tuning curves are observed. Simulated neurons have also shown some diversity in short-term plasticity restricted to layers with high density of bursting cells.

Es wird eine Reihe systemphysiologischer Untersuchungen zusammengefasst, die sich mit höheren visuellen Funktionen beim Menschen befassen. Mit Hilfe von Augenbewegungsmessungen, Kortexstimulation und funktioneller Kernspintomographie werden die kortikalen Strukturen und physiologischen Mechanismen untersucht, die sich mit der kortikalen Integration von visuellen, mnestischen, attentionalen und motorischen Verarbeitungsprozessen befassen. Im den folgenden Abschnitten werden die wichtigsten Ergebnisse zusammengefasst: 1. Es konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, dass Augenbewegungen während der visuellen Vorstellung explorierenden Augenbewegungen bei der Wahrnehmung entsprechen. Dies entspricht der Voraussage, dass Augenbewegungen bei visueller Vorstellung Ausdruck eines konstruktiven Prozesses der aufmerksamkeitsgesteuerten sensomotorischen Integration von Teilbildern und deren Position im Raum sind. Es wurde vorgeschlagen, dass die visuelle Vorstellung als ein konstruktiver Prozess zu verstehen sei, der unter Beteiligung des Dorsolateralen Präfrontalen Kortex (DLPFC) (Arbeitsgedächtnis) und parietaler (Raumwahrnehmung) und temporaler visueller Areale (Objektwahrnehmung) einzelne Teilbilder zu einem Vorstellungsbild zusammensetzt. 2. In weiteren Studien wurden zeitliche, strukturelle und behaviorale Aspekte des visuellen Arbeitsgedächtnisses untersucht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass das visuelle Arbeitsgedächtnis beim Menschen durch ein Netzwerk kortikaler Areale kontrolliert wird, das unter anderem den Posterior Parietalen Cortex (PPC) und den DLPFC umfasst. Erstmals wurde die selektive Störbarkeit dieser Areale durch transkranielle Kortexstimulation demonstriert und gezeigt, dass die Areale verschiedene kognitive Partialfunktionen wahrnehmen, die zu bestimmten Zeitpunkten des Gesamtprozesses wichtig sind. In weiteren Verhaltensexperimente wurde festgestellt, dass das visuelle Arbeitsgedächtnis selektiv die Wahrnehmungsinhalte repräsentiert, die für aktuelle Entscheidungen relevant sind. 3. Funktionell-kernspintomographische Untersuchungen hatten zum Ziel, die anatomischen Strukturen zu identifizieren, die bei bestimmten Formen der selektiven visuellen Aufmerksamkeit relevant sind. Es wurde die Rolle des Frontalen Augenfeldes (FEF) und des PPC in Paradigmen untersucht, in denen Augenbewegungen durch Fixation unterdrückt waren. Es konnte erstmals gezeigt werden, dass das FEF bei der visuellen Selektion im Rahmen einer Suchaufgabe mit Merkmalsverknüpfung aktiviert wird und nicht nur für die Kontrolle von Augenbewegungen, sondern auch für Prozesse der Aufmerksamkeitssteuerung verantwortlich ist. Im PPC konnten auf Grund differentieller Aktivierungsniveaus funktionelle Subregionen identifiziert werden und gezeigt werden das der PPC entgegen gängiger kognitionspsychologischen Modellvorstellungen eine aktive Rolle bei der visuellen Suche mit Merkmalsverknüpfung spielt. 4. Im letzten Teil der Arbeit wird der Versuch geschildert, visuelle Kortexareale als Teil eines okzipito-parieto-frontalen Netzwerkverbundes bildgebend darzustellen. Mit artifizieller Reizung des visuellen Kortex durch transkranielle Kortexstimulation und gleichzeitiger fMRT, gelang es neben einer lokalen BOLD-Antwort auch Ferneffekte in visuellen und visuo-motorischen Arealen zu induzieren. Die beteiligten anatomischen Strukturen entsprechen jenen, für die auf Grund von tierexperimentellen Untersuchungen funktionell relevante Verbindungen unterstellt werden. Dies ist ein weitere Schritt, um beim Menschen mit nicht-invasiven Methoden zerebrale Konnektivität untersuchen zu können. Die Erforschung von Struktur- und Funktionsbeziehungen höherer Leistungen des Sehsystems haben eine klinische Relevanz für die topische Diagnostik und Rehabilitation umschriebener Hirnläsionen. Dabei reicht es nicht einzelne Hirnfunktionen bestimmten Arealen zuzuordnen, sondern Hirnfunktionen als konzertierte Aktion verbundener Areale zu begreifen. / The general aim of this collection of published papers was to identify the neuroanatomical basis and functional mechanisms realizing the integration of sensory, attentional, mnestic and motor components during different visuo-motor response tasks (visual imagery, visual-working memory, attentive tracking, visual search) and to interpret the results in the context of cerebral connectivity. The main findings are: 1. Scanpaths, defined as repetitive sequences of fixations and saccades were found during visual imagery and viewing. Positions of fixations were distributed according to the spatial arrangement of subfeatures in the diagrams. For a particular imagined diagrammatic picture, eye movements were closely correlated with the eye movements recorded while viewing the same picture. Thus eye movements during imagery are not random but reflect the content of the visualized scene. 2. Investigating the role of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and the posterior parietal cortex (PPC) in memory-guided saccades in humans, it was found that repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) (20 Hz, 0.5 s) interferes temporarily with cortical activity in DLPFC and PPC during different intervals of the delay period. It was concluded that within this network the DLPFC is mainly concerned with the mnemonic representation and the PPC with the sensory representation of spatially defined perceptual information. 3. Comparison of functional magnetic resonance imaging data (fMRI) between attentive tracking and attention shifting revealed essentially identical activation patterns involving parietal, temporal and frontal cortical regions. This suggests that parietal cortex is involved not only in discrete shifts of attention between objects at different spatial locations, but also in continuous "attentional pursuit" of moving objects. Taken together, these data suggest that attentive tracking is mediated by a network of areas which includes (a) parietal and frontal regions responsible for attention shifts and eye movements and (b) the MT complex, thought to be responsible for motion perception. 4. Using fMRI in human subjects to investigate the functional neuroanatomy of attentional mechanisms employed during conjunction search it was found that the frontal eye field, the ventral precentral sulcus and several posterior parietal regions were consistently activated. Results suggested an involvement of the human frontal eye field in covert visual selection of potential targets during search and also provided evidence for a subdivision of posterior parietal cortex in multiple areas participating in covert visual selection, with a major contribution of the posterior intraparietal sulcus. 5. Using fMRI to investigate local and distant cerebral activation induced by transcranial electrical stimulation in order to non-invasively map functional connectivity in the human visual system distant coactivation in subcortical (lateral geniculate nucleus), cortical visual (striate and extrastriate) and visuomotor areas (frontal and supplementary eye fields) were found. This pattern of activation resembled a network of presumably interconnected visual and visuomotor areas. We conclude that combining transcranial electrical stimulation of neural tissue with simultaneous fMRI offers the possibility to study non-invasively cerebral connectivity in the human brain. In general the results support the concept of a highly integrated cortico-cortical network of multiple frontal and parietal areas controlling partially overlapping subtask involved in directed attention, visuo-spatial working memory, eye movements and visual feature detection.

Le tatouage d’images (ou watermarking) consiste à insérer de l’information de copyright, ou d’autres messages de vérification, invisible à l’oeil humain. Parmi toutes les approches possibles, le tatouage psychovisuel est le plus performant. Il consiste à utiliser les connaissances du Système Visuel Humain (SVH) pour en déduire la force du tatouage de manière optimale. Dans cette étude, nous avons proposé une nouvelle méthode de tatouage d'image psychovisuel qui combine les avantages des ondelettes à celle du domaine spatial par l’utilisation d'une représentation en ondelettes à échelle mixée (JNDEM). En considérant la densité des coefficients d'ondelettes dominants, notre système est capable de différencier les zones uniformes, celles incluant des contours, et enfin celles texturées. Nous avons sélectionné les méthodes efficaces de tatouage psychovisuel adaptée à chaque zone, à savoir celle de Chou pour les zones uniformes, de nouveau celle de Chou pour les contours, et finalement celle de Qi pour les textures. Nous avons aussi pris en compte la sensibilité du SVH qui varie avec l’orientation locale de l’image. Nous avons comparé notre JNDEM à quatre autres méthodes de tatouage de la littérature en termes de qualité visuelle et de robustesse. La méthode JNDEM conduit à une grande qualité visuelle mesurée par des tests objectifs et subjectifs. De plus elle est robuste aux attaques. Ce dernier point est d'une grande importance pour les applications réelles. En conclusion, la méthode proposée est le meilleur compromis entre la qualité visuelle et la résistance aux attaques comparée aux quatre autres méthodes testées. / Watermarking consists in inserting copyright information, or other verification messages, invisible to the human eye. Among all the possible approaches, perceptual watermarking is the most efficient. Perceptual image watermarking consists in using knowledge of the Human Visual System (HVS) to choose the strength of the watermark. In this study, we propose a new perceptual image watermarking method (JNDEM ) that combines the advantages of both the wavelet domain and the spatial domain since a mixed-scale wavelet representation is applied. By considering the density of the dominant wavelet coefficients, our scheme is able to differentiate uniform, edge and texture areas. We selected effective Just Noticeable Difference (JND) models from the literature, i.e. luminance and edge masking developed by Chou, and texture masking developed by Qi. We also took into account the HVS sensitivity which varies with the orientation of the image activity. We have compared our JNDEM to four other JND models from the literature in terms of visual quality and of robustness to attacks. Results show that the proposed method yields a high visual quality and is very robust against attacks. This last point is of great importance for real applications. In conclusion, the proposed method is the best trade-off between visual quality and resistance to attacks among the four other tested methods.