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Turbulent flow over a rough surface produces sound that radiates outside the near wall region. This noise source is often at a lower level than the noise created by edges and bluff body flows, but for applications with large surface area to perimeter ratios at low Mach number, this noise source can have considerable levels. In the first part of this dissertation, a detailed study is made of the ability of the Glegg & Devenport (2009) scattering theory to predict roughness noise. To this end, comparisons are made with measurements from cuboidal and hemispherical roughness with roughness Reynolds numbers, hu_Ï /ν, ranging from 24 to 197 and roughness height to boundary layer thickness ratios of 5 to 18. Their theory is shown to work very accurately to predict the noise from surfaces with large roughness Reynolds numbers, but for cases with highly inhomogeneous wall pressure fields, differences grow between estimation and measurement. For these surfaces, the absolute levels were underpredicted but the spectral shape of the measurement was correctly determined indicating that the relationship of the radiated noise with the wavenumber wall pressure spectrum and roughness geometry appears to remain relatively unchanged. In the second part of this dissertation, delay and sum beamforming and least-squares analyses were used to examine roughness noise recorded by a 36-sensor linear microphone array. These methods were employed to estimate the variation of source strengths through short fetches of large hemispherical and cuboidal element roughness. The analyses show that the lead rows of the fetches produced the greatest streamwise and spanwise noise radiation. The least-squares analysis confirmed the presence of streamwise and spanwise aligned dipoles emanating from each roughness element as suggested by the LES of Yang & Wang (2011). The least-squares calculated source strengths show that the streamwise aligned dipole is always stronger than that of the spanwise dipole, but the relative magnitude of the difference varies with frequency. / Ph. D.

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Recirculating turbulent flow within a cavity with an inlet wall jet was examined. In steady water flow velocity profiles were constructed with measurements taken with a Laser Doppler Anemometer system mounted on a traversing mechanism. Two test cases were examined Re jet = 1167 and Re jet = 3231 as well as developing wall jet profiles. The results are presented with mean velocity plots and turbulent kinetic energy contours. Comparisons are then made with results obtained using a finite difference computational scheme based on the k - e turbulence model. Good agreement was obtained between the computer code predictions and the experimental data. / Thesis / Master of Engineering (ME)

The flow of jets in confining enclosures has significant application in many engineering processes. In particular, two jet flows have been studied; the impingement of axisymmetric jets in a confined space and a turbulent inlet wall jet in a confining enclosure. The impingement of axisymmetric jets in a cavity has been examined using flow visualization, laser Doppler anemometry, and numerical simulations. When the flow field was examined under various geometrical and fluid parameters several flow regions were found, depending on the geometrical and fluid parameters. Initially, a steady flow field existed for all arrangements for Red < ~90 but subsequent increments in the fluid velocity caused an oscillating flow field to emerge. The onset of the oscillations and the upper limit of finite oscillations were found to be a function of the nozzle diameter to chamber dimension ratio. Although steady numerical simulations predicted the steady flow field well, steady simulations of the oscillating flow field over-predicted the peak axial velocities. The oscillating flow field is considered to be a class of self-sustaining oscillations where instabilities in the jet shear layer are amplified because of feed back from pressure disturbances in the impingement region. The turbulent wall jet in a cavity has been studied using flow visualization, laser Doppler anemometry (LDA), particle streak velocimetry (PSV) and numerical simulations. Instantaneous PSV measurements agreed well with time averaged LDA measurements. Two dimensional simulations using an algebraic stress turbulence model (ASM) were in better agreement with the experimental data than two and three dimensional simulations using a k - ε turbulence model in the wall jet region. A wall jet growth rate was found to be 54% higher than a wall jet in stagnant surroundings due to the enclosure boundaries. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The existence of small surface discontinuities on a flow surface generate significant pressure fluctuations which can manifest as radiated far field sound and affect the fluctuating near wall pressure field exerted on the flow surface. A significant amount of research has been performed on various step and gap flows; however few have dealt with step heights that are small relative to the incoming boundary layer. Fewer still have been concerned with measuring the effect on the fluctuating wall pressure field or the radiated far field sound from these small surface discontinuities. This study presents the work aimed at scaling the radiated sound from small forward and backward steps, detailing the surface pressure field as a result of these steps, and detailing the far field sound radiated from gap configurations of similar dimension. These measurements were performed in the Virginia Tech Anechoic Wall Jet facility for step heights that ranged from approximately 10% to 100% of the incoming boundary layer height. The results show the influence of step height and boundary layer velocity on the far field sound from forward and backward steps. Very little directivity is seen for either source and the larger step heights considered in this study are shown to not be acoustically compact. A new mixed scaling normalization is proposed for the far field spectra from both types of step, which is shown to reliably collapse the data. Backward steps are shown to be much weaker producers of far field sound than a similarly sized forward step. The implications of this behavior are discussed with respect to the far field sound measured from various gap flows. The fluctuating wall pressure field was measured upstream and downstream of both step configurations. The data shows a slow recovery of the wall pressure field with lasting disturbances up to 100 step heights downstream of the step feature. / Master of Science

Trailing edge noise is a common noise source in aerodynamic applications, such as wind turbines, duct fan blades, and propellers. As sound is a nuisance for people near this machinery, methods of reducing trailing edge noise are being investigated. A proven method of trailing edge noise reduction is using a serrated trailing edge. Many prior experiments have shown that a trailing edge with sawtooth serrations can reduce trailing edge noise compared to a straight trailing edge, but the mechanism by which sawtooth serrations reduce noise is not fully understood. Previous theoretical models have assumed that the turbulence field convecting past a serrated trailing edge is unchanged by the presence of the serrations, but experiments have shown that this is not the case in reality. This work attempts to further explore the mechanisms behind why trailing edge serrations reduce trailing edge noise. Additionally, it evaluates the usefulness of a wall jet wind tunnel for use in the study of serrated trailing edges. Experiments were conducted in an anechoic wall jet wind tunnel using a straight trailing edge configuration and a serrated trailing edge configuration. It was found that there may be differences in the unsteady surface pressure over serrated edges in one-sided flows as compared to two-sided flows, like on that of an airfoil, most notably in relation to the magnitude of the unsteady pressure on the serrations. In the wall jet and in agreement with other studies, it was found that the unsteady pressure fluctuations increase towards the tip of the serration in one-sided flows. This is counter to what is found in some studies of two-sided flows. Good agreement was found between some models of the wavenumber-frequency wall pressure spectrum of a turbulent boundary layer and the measured wall pressure spectrum on the straight trailing edge, and these models also produced good predictions of the noise produced by this trailing edge using Amiet's equation. A surface pressure microphone array was used to estimate the zero spanwise wavenumber surface pressure spectrum. This spectrum was used in Amiet's method to predict the measured trailing edge noise. Predictions using the wavenumber-filtered measurement tended to overpredict the measured far field noise most likely due to the inclusion of broader wavenumber content through the array's side lobe response and the breadth of the main lobe. The serrated trailing edge was found to increase coherence between two points on the same serration while reducing coherence between two points on different serrations. It was concluded that the presence of the serrations decorrelates small-scale turbulent eddies. Additionally, it was found that while the serrated trailing edge did reduce the noise produced, its destructive effect on the geometry-based resonance of the straight trailing edge configuration may have amplified the magnitude of the reduction. Finally, it was concluded that the serrations do indeed affect the hydrodynamic field near the trailing edge, and the theoretical models which make the assumption otherwise must be refined. / Master of Science / Trailing edge noise is a common noise source in aerodynamic applications, such as wind turbines, duct fan blades, and propellers. As sound is a nuisance for people near this machinery, methods of reducing trailing edge noise are being investigated. A proven method of trailing edge noise reduction is using a serrated trailing edge. Many prior experiments have shown that a trailing edge with sawtooth serrations can reduce trailing edge noise compared to a straight trailing edge, but the mechanism by which sawtooth serrations reduce noise is not fully understood. This work attempts to further explore the mechanisms behind why trailing edge serrations reduce noise. Experiments were conducted in an anechoic wind tunnel facility. It was found that a one-sided flow over a serrated trailing edge may be significantly different from that over a two-sided flow. Good agreement was found between prediction models and measurements of trailing edge noise. The serrated trailing edge was effective at reducing the coherence of turbulent eddies across the roots of the sawtooth serrations. It was concluded that the serrated trailing edge is effective at reducing noise, and that one means of doing so is decreasing the correlation of small-scale turbulent eddies, and that current models of the flow over serrations may need to be refined.

The aerodynamic flow and fluctuating surface pressure of a plane, turbulent, two-dimensional wall jet flow into still air over smooth and rough surfaces has been investigated in a recently constructed wall jet wind tunnel testing facility. The facility has been shown to produce a wall jet flow with Reynolds numbers based on the momentum thickness, Re<SUB>&delta</SUB> = &deltaU<SUB>m</SUB>/&nu, of between 395 and 1100 and nozzle exit Reynolds numbers, Re<SUB>j</SUB> = U<SUB>m</SUB>b/&nu, of between 16000 and 45000. The wall jet flow properties (&delta, &delta<SUP>*</SUP>, &theta, y<SUB>1/2</SUB>, U<SUB>m</SUB>, u<SUP>*</SUP>, etc.) were measured and characterized over a wide range of initial flow conditions and measurement locations relative to the wall jet source. These flow properties were measured for flow over a smooth flow surface and for flow over roughness patches of finite extent. The patches used in the current study varied in length from 305 mm to 914 mm (between 24 and 72 times the nozzle height, b) and were placed so that the leading edge of the patch was fixed at 1257 mm (x/b = 99) downstream of the wall jet source. These roughness patches were of a random sand grain roughness type and the roughness grain size was varied throughout this experiment. The tests covered roughness Reynolds numbers (k<SUP>+</SUP>) ranging from less than 2 to over 158 (covering the entire range of rough wall flow regimes from hydrodynamically smooth to fully rough). For the wall jet flows over 305 mm long patches of roughness, the displacement and momentum thicknesses were found to vary noticeably with the roughness grain size, but the maximum velocity, mixing layer length scale, y<SUB>/2</SUB>, and the boundary layer thickness were not seen to vary in a consistent, determinable way. Velocity spectra taken at a range of initial flow conditions and at several distinct heights above the flow surface showed a limited scaling dependency on the skin friction velocity near the flow surface. The spectral density of the surface pressure of the wall jet flow, which is not believed to have been previously investigated for smooth or rough surfaces, showed distinct differences with that seen in a conventional boundary layer flow, especially at low frequencies. This difference is believed to be due to the presence of a mixing layer in the wall jet flow. Both the spectral shape and level were heavily affected by the variation in roughness grain size. This effect was most notable in overlap region of the spectrum. Attempts to scale the wall jet surface pressure spectra using outer and inner variables were successful for the smooth wall flows. The scaling of the rough wall jet flow surface pressure proved to be much more difficult, and conventional scaling techniques used for ordinary turbulent boundary layer surface pressure spectra were not able to account for the changes in roughness present during the current study. An empirical scaling scheme was proposed, but was only marginally effective at scaling the rough wall surface pressure. / Ph. D.