As discussÃes em torno do uso da Ãgua bem como, a relaÃÃo sociedade-natureza tem se tornado um vetor de estudos nas duas Ãltimas dÃcadas que tem como objetivo aprofundar as discussÃes sobre a sustentabilidade do planeta e minimizar problemas de escassez enfrentados pelo setor produtivo e pelas populaÃÃes, colocando esta discussÃo no campo polÃtico protagonizado pelo poder pÃblico, pelos usuÃrios e pelas organizaÃÃes da sociedade civil na administraÃÃo das Ãguas nas bacias hidrogrÃficas. Discutir o uso e estabelecer arranjos institucionais que propiciem uma distribuiÃÃo mais equitativa entre os usuÃrios e planejando o uso atual e futuro evitando a escassez e ainda minimizando os conflitos decorrentes desta concorrÃncia à fim da alocaÃÃo de Ãgua. O Brasil mesmo possuindo a maior bacia hidrogrÃfica do mundo (o rio Amazonas) e ter um dos maiores potenciais hÃdricos mundiais (14% de toda Ãgua doce do mundo), tambÃm sofre com a escassez, sobretudo, no semiÃrido nordestino, que està contido na segunda regiÃo mais populosa do paÃs e possui a menor quantidade de Ãgua doce disponÃvel, escassez que à agravada pelas caracterÃsticas fÃsico-climÃticas e pelo mau uso de seus recursos hÃdricos. O trabalho aqui apresentado tem como objetivo principal desenvolver uma discussÃo da gestÃo das Ãguas no tocante a sua alocaÃÃo no semiÃrido brasileiro, tendo como foco principal os arranjos legais e institucionais desenvolvidos em trÃs Estados nordestinos: CearÃ, ParaÃba e Rio Grande do Norte e entendendo que o aparecimento desta modalidade de planejamento ambiental na regiÃo em meados dos anos 90 propiciou o desenvolvimento da gestÃo compartilhada e participativa da Ãgua. / The discussions around the use of water as well as the society - nature relationship has become a vector of studies over the past two decades that aims to deepen discussions on the sustainability of the planet and minimize shortage problems faced by the pr oductive sector and the populations, putting this thread in politics played by public authorities, by users and by civil society organizations in the management of water in watersheds. Discuss the use and establish institutional arrangements that provide a more equitable distribution among users and planning current and future use and avoiding shortages still minimizing conflicts arising from this competition is the end of the water allocation. Brazil itself has the largest watershed in the world ( Amazon as‟ river ) and have one of the largest global water potential (14 % of all fresh water in the world), also suffers from a shortage, especially in semiarid northeast, which is contained in second most populated region in the country and has the least amount of fresh water available, that shortage is exacerbated by physical and climatic characteristics and misuse of water resources. The work presented here aims to develop a discussion of water management regarding its allocation in the Brazilian semiarid region, focusing primarily on the legal and institutional arrangements developed in three northeastern states: CearÃ, ParaÃba and Rio Grande do Norte and understanding that the appearance of this type of environmental planning in the region in the mid - '90s led to the development of shared and participatory water management.

Avec le changement climatique, l'agriculture va devoir s'adapter à des sécheresses de plus en plus fréquentes et sévères. C'est le secteur le plus consommateur d'eau et celui à qui le plus d'efforts dans la réduction des prélèvements va être demandé. Les mécanismes d'allocation de l'eau existants (prix, marché, dispositifs de rationnement...) négligent souvent la forte variabilité de la disponibilité de la ressource. Or, la façon dont est partagée l'eau en cas de rareté influence le risque subi par les agriculteurs. Afin de réduire le coûts pour les agriculteurs et la société du risque sécheresse, il convient d'améliorer les outils de partage de l'eau et d'y intégrer des mécanismes de gestion du risque. C'est la question qui est étudiée dans cette thèse. Cette réflexion a été menée dans deux contextes très différents: la France, où le partage de l'eau est administré par les représentants de l'État en cas de sécheresse; l'Australie où des systèmes de marchés de l'eau ont été mis en place pour permettre les échanges d'eau entre agriculteurs. La thèse est composée de 3 articles (chapitres 2,3 et 5 en anglais) et d'éléments de cadrage (chapitres 1 et 4 en français). Le chapitre 1 présente la gestion de l'eau agricole en France. Les chapitres 2 et 3 étudient les interactions entre les règles utilisées pour le rationnement de l'eau d'irrigation en cas de sécheresse en France et les stratégies d'auto-assurance des agriculteurs. Nous étudions notamment le cas du stockage d'eau au niveau de l'exploitation, outil de gestion du risque de plus en plus mobilisé par les agriculteurs français. Le chapitre 2 modélise une situation où des agents ont la possibilité de substituer l'usage d'une ressource coûteuse mais sécurisée à l'usage de la ressource commune risquée. Nous déterminons la règle de partage optimale sous deux hypothèses distinctes: i) le planificateur définit simultanément la règle de partage et les choix de diversifications de façon à maximiser le bien être social; ii) le décideur utilise la règle de partage comme un instrument incitant les usagers à faire des choix de diversification optimaux d'un point de vue social. Le chapitre 3 est une expérience de laboratoire visant à comparer différentes règles de partage d'une ressource commune de taille incertaine quand les sujets peuvent choisir entre l'utilisation de cette ressource commune ou l'investissement dans une ressource sécurisée. Les règles sont évaluées sur leur aptitude à faciliter la coordination des agents autour du niveau optimal d'investissement dans la ressource sécurisée. La discussion des résultats de ces deux articles permet de proposer des recommandations aux administrations en charge de la mise en place des règles de partage de la ressource en cas de sécheresse, notamment dans le cadre de la réforme en cours en France (création des Organismes Uniques). Le chapitre 4 présente le fonctionnement des marchés de l'eau et le système de gestion des sécheresses en Australie. Le chapitre 5 étudie les gains de la mise en place de droits d'eau avec différents niveaux de sécurité, à l'aide d'une expérience de laboratoire capturant l'essence des marchés de l'eau australiens. Nous trouvons qu'un système avec deux niveaux de sécurité améliore l'efficacité allocative et le partage du risque mais seulement quand les coûts de transaction sont plus élevés sur le marché des allocations que sur le marché des droits d'eau. La mise en place de droits différenciés peut conduire à une diminution de la coût-efficacité du mécanisme en raison de l'augmentation des échanges sur le marché des droits d'eau et donc des coûts de transaction payés par les agriculteurs quand ceux-ci sont élevés sur le marché des droits. / With climate change, agriculture will have to adapt to face increasingly frequent and more severe droughts. Agriculture is the largest consumer of water and will face most of the water restrictions in the coming years. Existing water allocation mechanisms (pricing, water markets, rationing scheme) often fail to take into account the high variability of the resource, whereas those mechanisms have strong impacts on the risk born by agricultural water users. Water allocation schemes can contribute to reduce the cost of drought risk for farmers and society by integrating risk management mechanisms. We address this question in two different contexts: France, where water is managed by public authorities that are responsible for the rationing scheme and define the allocation of water between farmers in case of scarcity; Australia, where water markets have been implemented in order to allow water transfers between farmers. This Ph.D. dissertation is composed of 3 articles (chapter 2, 3 and 5 in English) and background information (chapter 1 and 4 in French). Chapter 1 describes the organization of irrigation water allocation in France. Chapters 2 and 3 analyze the interactions between the restrictions rules used in France to share the resource in crisis times and the self-insurance strategies of farmers. We investigate the particular example of on-farm storage, an increasingly widespread risk management tool used by French farmers. Chapter 2 models the decisions of agents heterogeneous in their risk tolerance that can substitute the use of a a secure private alternative to the use of a common pool resource of uncertain size. We find the optimal sharing rule under two assumptions concerning the regulator: i) the social planner defines simultaneously the sharing rule and the diversification choices in order to maximize social welfare; ii) the policy maker uses the sharing rule as an instrument to induce each agent to make the optimal diversification decision. Chapter 3 uses laboratory experiment to analyze how the sharing rule impacts the individual trade-off between relying on a free but uncertain resource and investing in a secure alternative resource. Rules are compared on the basis of their ability to facilitate coordination on the optimal investment in the secure resource. Chapter 4 presents how irrigation water is allocated between users in Australia in case of drought. Chapter 5 studies with a laboratory experiment, designed such as capturing the main characteristics of Australian water markets, whether offering different levels of security for water rights could potentially allow water users to manage the risks of supply uncertainty better. We find that a two security levels system improves both allocative efficiency and risk management, but only when transactions costs are higher in the market for water allocation than in the market for water rights. A system with different levels of security for water rights can be detrimental to cost-effectiveness by increasing the number of costly trades on the water rights market.

The thesis investigates deliberateness in water allocation to historically disadvantaged individuals (HDIs) through a water infrastructure development project, the Great Letaba River Water Development Project (GleWaP) within a context of water allocation reform (WAR). WAR is a programme set to redress past discriminatory laws and practices in the allocation of water in South Africa and seeks to address racial and gender inequalities inherited from past political epochs. The study interrogates the concept of individual water rights for women in a context where the collective is prioritised over the individual. The qualitative study uses data collected from 73 participants using interviews, two focus group discussions and surveys. John Rawls’ theory of distributive justice and Jacques Derrida’s deconstruction theory are applied to interrogate water allocation discourses and processes to understand whether genuine justice can be achieved through water allocation reform. The study is set within the critical social theory paradigm where the interlinkages between power, politics, race and gender are interrogated in search of social justice. Study findings reveal that the intentions of WAR as articulated in the goals are far from achievable with other variables such as land ownership still to be addressed. After several years, WAR remains steeped in theoretical rhetoric while lacking in practicality, as victims of past discriminatory practices still have no access to water resources, while legislation continues to protect and benefit a minority. The study identifies deficit thinking as one of the challenges in the implementation of the reform strategy. It concludes that the water allocation reform strategy does not break away from colonial and apartheid concerns for white beneficiaries as there does not seem to be a deliberate attempt to allocate water to predominantly black historically disadvantaged individuals. The thesis thus recommends measurable outcomes for water allocation reform, development of a vibrant black rural water economy, and the use of expropriation of water as a measure to speed up water reform. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2020. / Anthropology and Archaeology / PhD / Restricted

No description available.

<p>To address increasing irrigation water demand consecutive to the increasing population pressure in terms of food demand, there is an imperative of developing relevant mechanisms to regulate irrigation water consumption patterns. A radical shift from uncontrolled flooding irrigation as currently practiced by farmers in Mugerero paddy farming zone towards efficient allocation and use of water resources is important to save water that could be allocated to other water users.</p><p>This paper surveys current and past views on the way irrigation water is allocated in the irrigation scheme of Mugerero and how farmers are using water for paddy production purpose. The existing irrigation water practices as well as paddy productivity are assessed and the results are expected to be useful for water policy professionals, while addressing the growing water demand. According to the respondents, the causes of low paddy yields are the increasing and uncontrolled extension of paddy farming, non adapted irrigation infrastructure and water pricing systems as well as lack of updated knowledge and technologies on irrigation. These issues faced by the paddy farmers have led to pronounced economic, social and environmental consequences which are manifested in conflicts over irrigation water use, increasing soil salinity and pollution, destruction of infrastructure and above all, low irrigation paddy yields.The identification of the core problem in the irrigation system might be important for water managers as it would provide a starting point to establish comprehensive baseline towards efficient irrigation water allocation and use. This would improve paddy productivity within the formal as well as the growing informal paddy farming referred to “hors- perimeter” in the low land of Imbo region.</p>

Submitted by Emanuel Varela Cardoso (emanuel.varela@ufcg.edu.br) on 2018-10-02T17:57:26Z No. of bitstreams: 1 ÉRICA CRISTINE MEDEIROS NOBRE MACHADO - TESE (PPGRN) 2011.pdf: 17954515 bytes, checksum: b35d0135e20bba39c63bddd9139d873a (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-10-02T17:57:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 ÉRICA CRISTINE MEDEIROS NOBRE MACHADO - TESE (PPGRN) 2011.pdf: 17954515 bytes, checksum: b35d0135e20bba39c63bddd9139d873a (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-09-20 / CNPq / Esta tese parte do pressuposto de que, à luz da atual gestão dos recursos hídricos no Brasil, os critérios de determinação da vazão máxima outorgável são bastante restritivos, o que provoca descontentamentos e gera conflitos. Além de basear-se em critérios restritivos, a própria variabilidade do clima impõe modificações nas disponibilidades hídricas, de modo que, em períodos de vazões superiores à outorgável, há um excedente de vazão que fica indisponível para a produção de riquezas sociais. Nesta tese argumenta-se que esta vazão excedente pode ser alocada entre os usuários, minimizando os prejuízos decorrentes da não utilização desta. Dessa forma, além de prover um melhor aproveitamento dos recursos hídricos, a alocação de uma parcela variável da disponibilidade hídrica surge como uma estratégia de adaptação à variabilidade climática. Contudo, admite-se que o desenvolvimento de um sistema de apoio à decisão para alocação da vazão excedente não é tarefa fácil, posto que é necessário o envolvimento e a integração de inúmeras variáveis e métodos, os quais devem ser estruturados e acoplados em um modelo de otimização apropriado; e é necessária a adoção de uma abordagem multiobjetiva integrada aos instrumentos de gestão dos recursos hídricos, de modo a suprir as lacunas existentes sem violar os critérios e preceitos estabelecidos em lei. Nesta tese é proposta uma metodologia para a otimização da alocação interanual da vazão excedente em uma bacia hidrográfica através de um algoritmo evolucionário multiobjetivo, no qual foram inseridas adaptações e operadores de reprodução específicos para incorporar as restrições do problema e contornar os obstáculos apresentados. Além de considerar diferentes usos, conservativos e de diluição, e de ser intertemporal e integrada, tanto quali-quantitativamente quanto espacialmente na bacia, o algoritmo evolucionário foi desenvolvido com o propósito de ser facilmente acoplado a modelos que representem a modelagem hidrometeorológica da bacia hidrográfica, e ser facilmente adaptável para cenários de racionamento (vazão excedente nula ou negativa). A metodologia foi avaliada na bacia hidrográfica do rio Gramame, no Estado da Paraíba e a análise incluiu a aplicação da metodologia em dois cenários hipotéticos de previsão probabilística de precipitação: acima da média histórica e abaixo da média histórica, o que permitiu avaliar o comportamento do modelo de otimização em situações de alocação da vazão excedente e de racionamento da vazão outorgada. Também foi analisado o comportamento do modelo frente à adoção de estratégias com a flexibilização dos valores de vazão ecológica e da concentração de DBO5 admissível nos corpos receptores da bacia. As propostas de alocação encontradas foram ainda avaliadas quanto a sua robustez frente a mudanças nos valores médios históricos das variáveis hidrológicas da bacia, as quais podem ser provocadas por uma alteração climática ou mesmo ser resultantes das incertezas associadas. Os resultados obtidos indicam boas perspectivas de sucesso da metodologia apresentada, uma vez que, tanto nos cenários de racionamento quanto nos cenários de alocação do excedente, o algoritmo progrediu em direção à Fronteira de Pareto, buscando, nesta fronteira, as regiões de viabilidade, quando existia, ou de menores ocorrências de alarmes. / This work assumes that, in Brazil, water rights concession criteria are very restrictive, generating conflicts among users. In addition, the climate variability causes changes in water availability, so that in periods of higher flows, there is an excess discharge that is unavailable for the production of social wealth. This Thesis argues that the discharge surplus could be allocated among users, then minimizing losses due to not using it; the allocation can be defined annually, so that to consider the inter-annual variability of the hydrological variables. The allocation of a variable amount of water availability provides a better utilization of water resources, and is an adaptation strategy to cope with climate variability. However, it is true that the development of a decision support system for allocating the surplus discharge is not simple, because it is necessary the involvement and integration of many variables and methods that must be integrated in an appropriate optimization model. The approach should also be multiobjective and multicriteria and should be integrated with the water resources management law, in order to fill the gaps without violating the existing rules. Thus a methodology is proposed for optimizing the allocation of surplus discharge in a basin through a multiobjective evolutionary algorithm in which adaptations and reproduction operators were inserted to incorporate the specific constraints of the problem and overcome the obstacles presented. In addition this evolutionary algorithm was developed in order to be easily coupled to other models and be easily adaptable to scenarios of rationing (zero or negative surplus discharge). The methodology was evaluated in the Gramame river basin, in the state of Paraiba, which is already presenting evidence of greater demands than availability. The analysis included two hypothetical scenarios of probabilistic forecasts of precipitation: one above-normal forecast and one below-normal forecast; they allowed the assessment of the behavior of the optimization model in situations of allocating the surplus discharge as well as rationing when necessary. We also analyzed the behavior of the model with the adoption of management strategies with the flexibility of environmental flow values and allowable BOD concentration. The robustness of the allocation strategies were evaluated against changes in historical hydrological variables, which may be caused by climate change or even be the result of uncertainties. The results show that the algorithm proved to be adequate, presenting convergence for the most viable regions of Pareto Front.

To address increasing irrigation water demand consecutive to the increasing population pressure in terms of food demand, there is an imperative of developing relevant mechanisms to regulate irrigation water consumption patterns. A radical shift from uncontrolled flooding irrigation as currently practiced by farmers in Mugerero paddy farming zone towards efficient allocation and use of water resources is important to save water that could be allocated to other water users. This paper surveys current and past views on the way irrigation water is allocated in the irrigation scheme of Mugerero and how farmers are using water for paddy production purpose. The existing irrigation water practices as well as paddy productivity are assessed and the results are expected to be useful for water policy professionals, while addressing the growing water demand. According to the respondents, the causes of low paddy yields are the increasing and uncontrolled extension of paddy farming, non adapted irrigation infrastructure and water pricing systems as well as lack of updated knowledge and technologies on irrigation. These issues faced by the paddy farmers have led to pronounced economic, social and environmental consequences which are manifested in conflicts over irrigation water use, increasing soil salinity and pollution, destruction of infrastructure and above all, low irrigation paddy yields.The identification of the core problem in the irrigation system might be important for water managers as it would provide a starting point to establish comprehensive baseline towards efficient irrigation water allocation and use. This would improve paddy productivity within the formal as well as the growing informal paddy farming referred to “hors- perimeter” in the low land of Imbo region.

The United States (US) has experienced a surge in water shortages and droughts in recent times. Water shortages can result from population growth, climate change, inadequate water management policies, and the improper use of available technologies. The existing data and research on water use associated with water management policy structures are limited. Many states in the US follow strict regulations on water discharge into streams to enforce water quality standards; however, water withdrawal restrictions from streams are limited and inadequate in terms of water management at times of low flow. In states such as Virginia (VA), the Virginia Department of Environmental Quality (VDEQ) requires a Virginia Water Protection (VWP) permit for all water withdrawals from VA's surface waters. However, under certain provisions of VWP regulations, users are exempted from having a permit. Such permit exemptions exist in many states and present a severe challenge to water supply management. Chapter 2 compares the impact of permit exemptions on surface water availability and drought flows and compares these impacts to the relatively well-studied risks presented by dry climate change and demand growth in Virginia (VA). It was observed that in some regions, the impacts under the exempt user scenario were higher than those under the dry climate change scenario. In addition, water supply managers and government agencies use user-reported water withdrawal data to develop water management programs. Irrigated agriculture is the largest source of water consumption in the US. However, water-reporting regulations exempt users from withdrawing water for irrigation under a certain threshold. Moreover, as water is not metered, users often do not report their irrigation water use, resulting in considerable uncertainty about the impacts of irrigation withdrawals, which could potentially impact other water users, lead to water shortages or conflicts, and negatively impact stream ecology. Chapter 3 focuses on developing a novel methodology for quantifying unreported irrigation water withdrawals using publicly available USDA-Census and USDA-IWMS datasets. This method was used to evaluate the unreported water withdrawals in the VA. Finally, water use practices at the field level intersect with other environmental issues at a larger scale. For example, irrigation practices can influence nutrient uptake and transport at the field level. Insufficient water for irrigation, especially during critical growth stages, results in yield and economic losses and reduces agricultural productivity. However, excessive irrigation can lead to wasted water and energy as well as runoff and leaching of nutrients and agricultural chemicals. Therefore, the adoption of technological advancements at the field scale can reduce the amount of water needed to fulfill the needs while mitigating any nutrient impacts on the soil due to the excessive use of water. This is highly important when fertilizer prices are always high. Chapter 4 focuses on quantifying the impact of the use of short-term weather forecast data in irrigation scheduling on nutrient and water use efficiency in humid climates: experimental results for corn and cotton. It was found that irrigation scheduling using short-term weather forecast data is helpful for improving the nutrient and water use efficiency of corn. For cotton, nutrient and water use efficiency are highly influenced by irrigation and precipitation with respect to the growth stage. / Doctor of Philosophy / Water shortages in the US have increased in recent times owing to climate change. Water demand is expected to increase in the future due to population growth and economic development in certain regions. Water supply planning is significantly influenced by water policy regulations. Water withdrawal regulations mandate a water withdrawal permit for making withdrawals in many states across the US. However, due to provisions in the same water regulations, certain users are exempt from taking a water withdrawal permit. One example of such users is grandfathered users who had a water withdrawal permit before July 1, 1989, in Virginia. Such exemptions are a severe challenge to the management of water supply, as exempt withdrawal amounts are generally high. We studied the impacts of these exempt users on VA's water resources of VA and compared them with the impacts of dry climate change and 2040 demand growth in Chapter 2. The results indicate that the impact of exempt users is higher than that of climate change in some regions across VA. Additionally, water-reporting regulations require users to report irrigation water withdrawals. However, users below the reporting threshold were excluded from reporting. Some users might underreport or do not comply with the water withdrawal regulations. These user-reported data are often used in developing water management plans, which may become ineffective owing to incomplete water use data. Chapter 3 focuses on the development of a data-based approach for quantifying unreported irrigation water withdrawals. This method would be transferable to any other state across the US. We compared the estimated irrigation withdrawals with reported irrigation withdrawals across the VA and generated unreported withdrawals at the county level in the VA. Finally, at the field level, irrigation can highly influence the nutrient uptake of plants. Excess irrigation may result in the removal of nutrients below the roots of the plant or may be removed by surface runoff, making it unavailable for plant uptake. Along with the economic impacts of unused fertilizer and loss in yield, unused nutrients may impact the environment and water bodies. Chapter 4 focuses on the impact of short-term weather forecast data on the irrigation scheduling of corn and cotton in humid climates. We found that weather-informed irrigation is helpful in increasing the nutrient and water use efficiency of corn. For cotton, the results were highly affected by precipitation and irrigation with respect to the growth stage of cotton.

The bottled water industry in Mexico represents a new method of providing drinking water to a society without ties to a conventional central piped domestic water supply system. Mexico, the world's leader in bottled water per capita consumption, has struggled to provide reliable, safe drinking water for its citizens. This study examines the context in which the bottled water industry rose to become the primary source of drinking water for a majority of Mexicans. The study shows how the combination of factors allowed the industry's rapid rise from a niche market of elite and 'healing' waters to its present size. The cholera epidemic of the 1990s, the 1985 earthquake, and the financial crisis that left Mexico unable to invest in water infrastructure forced consumers to seek alternative water sources. Political factors and the liberalizing reforms of the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s facilitated market solutions and private-public-partnerships to meet the needs of the Mexican citizens. The world's largest food and beverage distributors bought into the market and found that the public was willing to pay cash for water bottles where the public water sector had failed to deliver potable water. Despite the fact that bottled water is more expensive per unit of water than a centralized delivery system, consumers are willing to pay a high price for clean water. It is an open question whether consumers return to tap water even after improvements have been made, once the bottled water industry has been so established. / text

Tradable permits are currently among the most frequently used market-based instruments of environmental protection. The aim of my work is this tool to explore and then implement the water management in the Czech Republic. I'm going to try to answer the fundamental question is whether a tool that can be in our legal environment to apply to the taking of surface water for industrial use? This method of solution is used, especially abroad, especially in the U.S. and Australia. I'm going to use the literature and resources in this particular part of the world. In my work I rely on both scientific literature and articles written on this subject and obtained from the primary sources of research systems in other countries. The analysis of the Czech environment, the focus on water authorities and companies to individual basins, which are according to our laws the central government in this matter.