The recent spikes in oil prices have spurred an already bullish demand on biofuels as a source of alternative energy. However, the unprecedented price records set simultaneously by staple food have raised high concerns about potential impacts of biofuels on the global agricultural landscape as fuel and food markets are being inextricably coupled. The revival of interest in the Fischer-Tropsch (FT) process comes into full force since it offers a promising way to produce carbon-neutral liquid fuels which are readily usable with today's existing infrastructure. The FT synthesis offers the possibility of using crop waste as feedstock instead of the crop itself thus avoiding the risk of further straining water and land resources while helping to alleviate the national energy bill and to achieve independence from foreign oil. As the airline industry is the hardest-hit sector with fuel jumping ahead of labor as the primary cost item, this thesis investigates the prospects of the FT process to transform sugar cane waste (namely bagasse, tops and green leaves) and landfill gas in order to produce kerosene (C12H26) as jet fuel for civil aviation. Established chemical correlations and thermodynamics of chemical reactions are used to assess the water footprint inherent to kerosene production using the above feedstocks at optimal conditions of temperature, pressure, catalyst and reactor type. It has been estimated that 9 to 19 gallons of water are needed for every gallon of kerosene produced. In addition, for the case of sugar cane, less land area per unit energy is required compared to ethanol production since all non-food waste of the plant can be used to produce FT fuel as opposed to ethanol which would utilize only the sugar (food) portion of the plant. This translates into a much lower water footprint for irrigation and consequently a lower water footprint overall.

The white shirt is widely chosen attire by the people for its comfort and aesthetics. With rising population growth and demand for clothing, the production of white cotton shirts will be increased. The production of the white cotton shirt has various environmental impacts and also leads to water scarcity issues. Awareness must be increased with the brands, organisations and consumer about the water scarcity issues. With the help of water footprint analysis it is possible to calculate the water impacts in the supply chain of the product. It is also equally important to calculate the water footprint of the entire LCA of shirt as the use phase plays a prominent role.  The thesis is conducted to understand the water footprint and also assess the water performance for a white cotton shirt. The main purpose of the study is as follows: To find the water footprint impacts for the lifecycle of a white shirt produced and sold  To find the major water hotspots in Textile supply chain while producing a Shirt  A LCA based water footprint assessment is carried out for white shirt. A water scarcity indicator (WSI) is used to calculate the water impacts involved in the lifecycle of the shirt. The thesis is conducted such that there are two cases, namely, case 1 and case 2. Case 1 includes cotton cultivation, fabric manufacturing, distribution and retail, use phase and waste disposal. Case 2 includes fabric manufacturing, distribution and retail, use phase and coproduct in the form of a shirt. In these cases avoided burden approach with allocation method is used to conduct the study. The major WSI hotspots in LCA of the white shirt are cotton cultivation and washing, drying and finishing laundry(in use phase).  A sensitivity analysis is carried out from the results of the thesis, majorly focusing on the identified hotspots and sensitive parts. The WSI impacts on sourcing organic cotton and reducing the wash cycle (in use phase) were identified. From the sensitivity analysis, it was clear that sourcing organic cotton by the company and reducing the wash cycles by the consumer tremendously reduced the WSI and water scarcity issues. Sensitivity analysis also showed that more the shirt is avoided, more benefits is considered. Further research and recommendation are stated based on the result and analysis. / Den vita skjortan är allmänt vald klädsel av folket för sin komfort och estetik. Med ökande befolkningstillväxt och efterfrågan på kläder kommer produktionen av vita bomullströjor att öka. Produktionen av den vita bomullsskjortan har olika miljöpåverkan och leder också till problem med vattenbrist. Medvetenheten måste ökas med varumärkena, organisationerna och konsumenterna om vattenbristen. Med hjälp av analys av vattenavtryck är det möjligt att beräkna vattenpåverkan i produktens försörjningskedja. Det är också lika viktigt att beräkna vattenavtrycket för hela LCA-tröjan eftersom användningsfasen spelar en framträdande roll.  Avhandlingen genomförs för att förstå vattenavtrycket och även bedöma vattenprestanda för en vit bomullsskjorta. Huvudsyftet med studien är följande:  Att hitta effekterna på vattenavtrycket för livscykeln för en vit skjorta som produceras och säljs Att hitta de viktigaste hotspotsna i textilförsörjningskedjan när du producerar en skjorta  En LCA-baserad utvärdering av vattenavtryck utförs för vit skjorta. En vattenbristindikator (WSI) används för att beräkna de vattenpåverkan som är involverade i skjortans livscykel. Avhandlingen genomförs så att det finns två fall, nämligen fall 1 och fall 2. Fall 1 inkluderar bomullsodling, tygtillverkning, distribution och detaljhandel, användningsfas och avfallshantering. Fall 2 omfattar tygtillverkning, distribution och detaljhandel, användningsfas och samprodukt i form av en skjorta. I dessa fall används metod för att undvika bördor med fördelningsmetod för att genomföra studien. De stora WSI-hotspotsna i LCA för den vita skjortan är bomullsodling och tvätt, torkning och efterbehandling av tvätt (i användningsfas).  En känslighetsanalys utförs från avhandlingens resultat med huvudsakligen fokus på identifierade hotspots och känsliga delar. WSI-effekterna på att köpa organisk bomull och minska tvättcykeln (i användningsfas) identifierades. Från känslighetsanalysen var det tydligt att inköp av ekologisk bomull från företaget och minskade tvättcykler av konsumenten kraftigt minskade problem med WSI och vattenbrist. Ytterligare forskning och rekommendation anges baserat på resultat och analys.

A water footprint is a tool for assessing the impacts of freshwater use by mapping the water use of the production of a good or a service, a process in a production chain, a business or even of a whole country. One of the most commonly used methods for calculating the water footprint was developed by the Water Footprint Network (WFN). The objective of this study was to account for the water footprint of the production of coffee in the area of Miraflor, Nicaragua, using the WFN method. The study aimed to highlight where improvements can be made regarding water resources management, both with respect to the quantity of the water appropriated in the different process steps, as well as concerning the treatment of residues of the coffee production. The results of the study show a water footprint of 20 049 m3 per ton of harvested coffee in Miraflor. This equals a consumption of more than 6 000 000 m3 of water when considering the overall production of the harvest of 2015/2016. The results pinpoint the growing phase as crucial with 98.1 % of the total water footprint. Nicaragua and the region where Miraflor is located are having increasing problems with water scarcity due to drought and contamination of water resources. Together with these circumstances, the results of the study show that the current management should be improved in order to minimize the impacts on local water resources and the environment. It is mainly the application of pesticides and fertilizers in the cultivation of the coffee that give rise to the large water footprint. Furthermore, the current management violates the law restricting the discharge of effluent waters from coffee processing plants. Another important factor contributing to the water footprint yields in the consumption of rainwater via evapotranspiration by the crops in field. In order to reduce the water footprint there should be a more conscious use of pesticides and fertilizers as well as a development in the treatment of the effluent water. The latter factor can be elaborated by considering new installations where even smaller ones probably could make a considerable change. Other management practices to decrease the water footprint consist of generating a higher yield per hectare of land. / Vattenfotavtryck är ett verktyg för att bedöma miljöpåverkan från användningen av vatten. Med ett vattenfotavtryck kartläggs hur vatten används för produktionen av en vara, för en process i en produktionskedja, ett företag eller för ett helt land. En av de mest använda metoderna för beräkning av vattenfotavtryck utvecklades av Water Footprint Network (WFN). Syftet med denna studie var att genom användning av WFN:s metod beräkna vattenfotavtrycket för produktionen av kaffe i området Miraflor i Nicaragua. Studien ämnade visa var förbättringar kan göras i vattenresurshanteringen, både vad gäller mängden vatten som används i de olika produktionsstegen som i behandlingen av restvattnet från kaffeproduktionen. Resultatet från studien visar ett vattenfotavtryck på 20 049 m3 per ton skördat kaffe i Miraflor. Sett till hela skörden för säsongen 2015/2016 ger detta ger en total konsumtion av mer än 6 000 000 m3 vatten. Resultatet påvisar att vegetationsperioden är den i särklass största bidragande faktorn till kaffeproduktionens vattenfotavtryck med 98,1 % av det totala avtrycket. Nicaragua och regionen där Miraflor ligger har alltjämt ökande problem med vattenbrist på grund av torka och föroreningar av vattenresurser. Studiens resultat visar tillsammans med denna bakgrund att nuvarande tekniker i kaffeproduktionen i Miraflor bör förbättras för att minimera konsekvenser för lokala vattenresurser och miljön. Främst är det användningen av bekämpningsmedel och gödsel som ger upphov till det stora vattenfotavtrycket. Kaffeproduktionen orsakar därtill överträdelser av gällande bestämmelser om värden på vattenkvalitetsparameterar i restvatten från kaffeproduktion. En ytterligare betydande faktor för vattenfotavtrycket som påvisas i studien är konsumtionen av regnvatten via evapotranspiration från grödorna i fält. För att minska vattenfotavtrycket bör i första hand en mer medveten användning av bekämpningsmedel och gödsel införas. Därtill bör det ske en förbättring i hanteringen av utsläppsvatten. Den senare faktorn kan utvecklas genom att nya installationer införs där även mindre sådana troligtvis skulle ge en betydande skillnad. Andra metoder för att minska vattenfotavtrycket ligger i att generera en högre skörd per hektar land.

The water footprint is a multidimensional indicator which was created to quantify the total volume of freshwater used for various purposes. With the water footprint it is possible to determine the volume and type of water used directly and indirectly during the production in a given place and time. The data related to the water footprints of products are utilized in the evaluation of the international trade with goods, too (a concept of virtual water used for the analysis of water stress export out of the country which imports water-intensive products). The greatest amount of water is used globally in the agriculture, so the agricultural products are the ones with the highest water footprints. The focus of concern is the water footprint of an agriculture production and the aim of this work is to bring the first results regarding the water footprint of the cow milk in the Czech Republic and also to evaluate a methodology of its calculation. Two dairy farms dealing with a market production of milk from the Liberec region were chosen for the research. The farm Rváčov is oriented to an intensive milk production and on the other hand the farm Bzí is a system with mixed elements of extensive and intensive characters of the dairy production. For the comparison of the milk production effectiveness we have...

Introdução: A produção de alimentos é o setor que exerce maior Pegada Hídrica (PH), definida como o volume de água doce usado durante a produção e o consumo de bens e serviços. Os padrões alimentares contemporâneos vêm sofrendo mudanças em função das transições demográfica, epidemiológica e nutricional. Além disso, a primeira década do século XXI no Brasil foi marcada por políticas de proteção social que culminaram em redução da pobreza e da desigualdade. É necessário compreender como essas transformações repercutiram na demanda de água necessária para sustentar os novos padrões alimentares da população brasileira. Objetivo: Analisar a evolução da associação entre os padrões alimentares (PA) brasileiros e a PH associada à produção dos alimentos adquiridos nos domicílios brasileiros entre os anos 2003 e 2009. Métodos: Estudo transversal com dados de aquisição domiciliar de alimentos, disponibilizados pela Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares nos anos de 2002-2003 e 2008-2009. Os alimentos adquiridos foram compatibilizados com dados de PH de produtos. A PH média per capita foi descrita segundo grupos de alimentos, macrorregião, área e quintos de renda per capita. Os PA foram estimados para os setores censitários por análise de componentes principais. As variações observadas entre os dois anos do inquérito foram testadas com o teste t de Student para médias independentes, com nível de significância de 5 por cento . Os efeitos dos padrões alimentares sobre a PH e seus componentes foram estimados por regressão linear multivariada. Resultados: A PH média associada à produção dos alimentos adquiridos nos domicílios brasileiros foi de 2.650 m³ por ano per capita (EP ± 37,3 m³ por ano per capita), em 2003 e 2.446 m³ por ano per capita (EP ± 37,3 m³ por ano per capita) em 2009. Cerca de 91,4 por cento desses valores corresponderam ao componente verde, 4,7 por cento ao azul e 3,9 por cento ao cinza. Todas as regiões apresentaram redução da PH per capita em 2009, mas revelaram-se significativas apenas nas regiões NE e SE. Observou-se tendência linear de aumento da PH conforme incremento da renda. Foram identificados 6 PA, diferenciados quanto ao tipo de fonte proteica, sendo o PA1 predominante em carnes vermelhas e processadas, o PA2 em leite e ovos, o PA3 em peixes e oleaginosas, o PA4 em cereais e leguminosas, o PA5 em peixes e produtos processados, e o PA6 em peixes, análogos proteicos à base de soja e outras fontes vegetais de proteínas. Os padrões PA1 e PA6 apresentaram tendência de aumento em 2009, mas o PA1 apresentou impacto três vezes superior à PH que o PA6. O PA6 foi apontado como um padrão mais sustentável, em consonância com as recomendações da literatura e dos guias alimentares contemporâneos. Conclusões: As transformações socioeconômicas na primeira década do século XXI refletiram em mudanças nos padrões alimentares da população, que impactaram a PH. Sugere-se a necessidade de intervenções que considerem tanto as variantes socioeconômicas, como o consumo alimentar adequado, saudável e sustentável. / Introduction: Food production is the sector that exerts the major Water Footprint (WF), defined as the volume of freshwater resources used for production and consumption of goods and services. Contemporary eating patterns have changed in face of demographic, epidemiological, and nutritional transitions. In addition, in Brazil, the first decade of XXI century was marked by social protection policies that culminated in poverty reduction and inequality attenuation. It is necessary to understand how these changes may have affected the water demand required to sustain the new dietary patterns of the population. Aim: To examine the association between Brazilian dietary patterns (DP) and the WF associated to the production of the food products purchased in Brazilian households between 2003 and 2009. Methods: Cross-sectional study with household food purchase data provided by the Household Budget Surveys for the years 2002-2003 and 2008-2009. The purchased foods were matched with WF data. The average per capita WF was described into food groups, macro-region, area and level of income. The DP were estimated for the censitary sectors by principal component analysis. The differences observed between the two surveys were tested with the t Student test for independent means, with a significance level of 0.05. The effects of dietary patterns on WF and components were estimated by multivariate linear regression. Results: The average water footprint, associated with the production of foods purchased in Brazilian households, was 2,650 m³ per year per capita (EP ± 37.3 m³ per year per capita) in 2003 and 2,446 m³ per year per capita (EP ± 37.3 m³ per year per capita) in 2009. Approximately 91.4 per cent of these values corresponded to the green component, 4.7 per cent to the blue component and 3.9 per cent to the gray component. All regions showed a reduction in WF in 2009, but this was significant only in the Northeast and Southeast regions. It was observed a positive linear trend between WF and income. Six DP were identified and characterized by the type of protein source: DP1 by red and processed meat, DP2 by milk and eggs, DP3 by fish and oilseeds, DP4 by cereals and legumes, DP5 by fish and processed foods and DP6 by fish, soy-based meat analogues and other vegetable sources of protein. The DP1 and DP6 patterns showed an upward trend in 2009, but the impact of PA1 on WF was three times higher than of PA6. The PA6 was suggested as a more sustainable pattern, in agreement with the literature and with the contemporary food guides recommendations. Conclusions: Socioeconomic changes in the first decade of this century reflected in modifications concerning the dietary patterns of the population, which affected the WF. Interventions that consider both the socioeconomic variants and healthy and sustainable food consumption are necessary.

O arroz é uma das principais culturas irrigadas no mundo e com as maiores quantidades de água aplicada. No estado de Santa Fe, Argentina, o arroz é a principal cultura irrigada, com eficiências de irrigação muito baixas (25 a 40%). O método tradicional de inundação contínua (Ic) não aproveita as precipitações pluviais, que representam entre 30 a 40% da evapotranspiração real (ETr). Foram desenvolvidos experimentos em diferentes agro-ecossistemas em San Javier (Santa Fe), objetivando avaliar o arroz com aspersão (AS), inundação intermitente (In) e Ic, visando aumentar as eficiências de irrigação e de uso da água. Na safra 2011-12 predominou Planossolo nátrico (PlaNa), altamente adensado e, na safra 2012-13, Regossolo abrupto (RegAb), com boa drenagem. A variedade de arroz utilizada foi Puitá INTA CL, índica e anaeróbica. A aplicação do Nitrogênio (2011-2012) foi feita de duas maneiras: 20% na semeadura e o restante no perfilhamento, segundo manejo habitual dos produtores (adubação tradicional, AT), e a maneira alternativa, parcelando a adubação (AP). Na safra 2012-2013 foram avaliadas diferentes doses de adubação: T0, testemunha; T1 e T2, com 20 e 40% do requerimento total do N respectivamente. O delineamento estatístico em 2011-12 foi parcelas divididas e fatorial em 2012-13. Em Ic foi mantida uma altura de água constante (6 a 8 cm) e, em In, manteve-se sempre o solo PlaNa saturado e RegAb com potencial mátrico de -10 kPa. Em AS, no PlaNa utilizou-se como controle -25 kPa mudando para -10 kPa no RegAb. Foi realizado um balanço hídrico (BH) determinando, entre outras componentes, lâmina de irrigação bruta (Lib); ETr e percolação profunda (PerIr). Foi observada a fenologia, avaliada as taxas de crescimento e índice de área foliar. Na colheita foi determinada a produtividade (PG), seus componentes e concentrações de N no tecido vegetal. Foram determinadas as eficiências de irrigação, de uso de água, água virtual e pegada hídrica. Em 2011-12 a PG foi semelhante nos manejos Ic e In (média de 9,8 Mg ha-1), com redução de 24% no AS devido a forte estresse hídrico. No PlaNa a taxa de percolação foi 2,8 mm d-1, resultando a Lib e PerIr dos manejos In e Ic quase iguais, de 6.300 e 1.540 m3 ha-1 respectivamente. Em 2012- 13 a PG foi similar em todos os manejos da água (média de 10 Mg ha-1), com resposta significativa às doses de adubação. A taxa de percolação do RegAb triplicou a PlaNa, pelo que a Lib e PerIr dos manejos Ic, In e AS apresentaram grandes diferenças: 11.600, 9.120 e 5.320 m3 ha-1 para Lib e 8.580, 6.190 e 1.980 m3 ha-1 para PerIr. A biomassa aérea teve comportamento contrastante, com crescimento sigmóide em 2011-12, embora linear em 2012-13. A pegada hídrica da produção de arroz em San Javier foi de 261,7 Mm3 ano-1, representando a água azul, verde e cinza 52, 41 e 7%, respectivamente. In apresentou-se como o manejo mais versátil, sendo sua utilização promissora, no entanto AS pode ser utilizado em solos com boa drenagem. Nestes solos seria mais apropriada a adubação parcelada. / Rice is one of the main crops under irrigation in the world, with the highest amount of water applied. In Santa Fe, Argentina, rice is the main crop under irrigation. The traditional method of continuous flooding (CF) does not use rainfall (R), which represents 30 to 40% of the actual evapotranspiration (ETa). Experiments were conducted in different agroecosystems in San Javier, Santa Fe, with the aim of assessing rice cultivation with sprinkle irrigation (SI), intermittent flooding (IF), and CF to increase irrigation and water use efficiencies. In 2011-2012, the predominant soil was typic Natraqualf (Nat), highly compacted, and in 2012-2013 it was Orthent Abruptic (OrtAb), with good drainage. The rice variety used was lowland, Puitá INTA CL. 20% of the fertilizer with N (2011-2012) was applied at sowing and the rest at tillering stage, according to the farmers\' usual management (traditional fertilization T) and an alternative management, thus resulting in partial fertilization (PF). In 2012- 2013, different doses of N were evaluated: T0, no fertilizer; T1 and T2, with 20 and 40% of the total N requirement, respectively. In 2011-2012, the statistical design consisted of split plots, while in 2012-2013 the design was a factorial one. In CF ponded water was maintained at a constant height of 6-8 cm during the whole cycle, whereas in IF Nat was always saturated or with -10 kPa in the case of OrtAb. In SI treatments, -25 kPa was used as control in Nat, changing to -10 kPa in OrtAb. A water balance (WB) was made, determining, among other components, gross irrigation depth (GId), ETa, and deep percolation arising from irrigation (DPir). Phenology was observed, and growth rates and leaf area index were evaluated. Yields (Y, 14%), its components, and the concentrations of nitrogen in plant tissues were determined at harvest time. The efficiencies of irrigation, water use, and water footprint were determined. In 2011-2012, Y was similar in CF and IF managements (average of 9.8 Mg ha-1), with a 24% reduction in SI due to strong water stress. Nat had a percolation of 2.8 mm day-1, thus GId and DPir in IF and CF managements were very similar -- 6,300 and 1,540 m3 ha-1, respectively. In 2012-2013, Y was similar in all water managements (average of 10 Mg ha-1), with a significant response to fertilization rates. The percolation of OrtAb tripled that of Nat, so GId and DPir in CF, IF, and SI systems had significant differences: 11,600, 9,120, and 5,320 m3 ha-1 for GId; and 8,580, 6,190, and 1,980 m3 ha-1 for DPir. The aboveground dry weight had a contrasting behavior, with a sigmoidal growth in 2011-2012 and a linear growth in 2012-2013. The water footprint of rice production in San Javier was 261.7 Mm3 year-1 -- blue, green, and gray water representing 52, 41, and 7%, respectively. IF management was the most versatile, being a promising technique to be used in the field, while SI can be used in soils with good drainage. In these soils, splitting fertilization would be more appropriate.

Introdução: A produção de alimentos é o setor que exerce maior Pegada Hídrica (PH), definida como o volume de água doce usado durante a produção e o consumo de bens e serviços. Os padrões alimentares contemporâneos vêm sofrendo mudanças em função das transições demográfica, epidemiológica e nutricional. Além disso, a primeira década do século XXI no Brasil foi marcada por políticas de proteção social que culminaram em redução da pobreza e da desigualdade. É necessário compreender como essas transformações repercutiram na demanda de água necessária para sustentar os novos padrões alimentares da população brasileira. Objetivo: Analisar a evolução da associação entre os padrões alimentares (PA) brasileiros e a PH associada à produção dos alimentos adquiridos nos domicílios brasileiros entre os anos 2003 e 2009. Métodos: Estudo transversal com dados de aquisição domiciliar de alimentos, disponibilizados pela Pesquisa de Orçamentos Familiares nos anos de 2002-2003 e 2008-2009. Os alimentos adquiridos foram compatibilizados com dados de PH de produtos. A PH média per capita foi descrita segundo grupos de alimentos, macrorregião, área e quintos de renda per capita. Os PA foram estimados para os setores censitários por análise de componentes principais. As variações observadas entre os dois anos do inquérito foram testadas com o teste t de Student para médias independentes, com nível de significância de 5 por cento . Os efeitos dos padrões alimentares sobre a PH e seus componentes foram estimados por regressão linear multivariada. Resultados: A PH média associada à produção dos alimentos adquiridos nos domicílios brasileiros foi de 2.650 m³ por ano per capita (EP ± 37,3 m³ por ano per capita), em 2003 e 2.446 m³ por ano per capita (EP ± 37,3 m³ por ano per capita) em 2009. Cerca de 91,4 por cento desses valores corresponderam ao componente verde, 4,7 por cento ao azul e 3,9 por cento ao cinza. Todas as regiões apresentaram redução da PH per capita em 2009, mas revelaram-se significativas apenas nas regiões NE e SE. Observou-se tendência linear de aumento da PH conforme incremento da renda. Foram identificados 6 PA, diferenciados quanto ao tipo de fonte proteica, sendo o PA1 predominante em carnes vermelhas e processadas, o PA2 em leite e ovos, o PA3 em peixes e oleaginosas, o PA4 em cereais e leguminosas, o PA5 em peixes e produtos processados, e o PA6 em peixes, análogos proteicos à base de soja e outras fontes vegetais de proteínas. Os padrões PA1 e PA6 apresentaram tendência de aumento em 2009, mas o PA1 apresentou impacto três vezes superior à PH que o PA6. O PA6 foi apontado como um padrão mais sustentável, em consonância com as recomendações da literatura e dos guias alimentares contemporâneos. Conclusões: As transformações socioeconômicas na primeira década do século XXI refletiram em mudanças nos padrões alimentares da população, que impactaram a PH. Sugere-se a necessidade de intervenções que considerem tanto as variantes socioeconômicas, como o consumo alimentar adequado, saudável e sustentável. / Introduction: Food production is the sector that exerts the major Water Footprint (WF), defined as the volume of freshwater resources used for production and consumption of goods and services. Contemporary eating patterns have changed in face of demographic, epidemiological, and nutritional transitions. In addition, in Brazil, the first decade of XXI century was marked by social protection policies that culminated in poverty reduction and inequality attenuation. It is necessary to understand how these changes may have affected the water demand required to sustain the new dietary patterns of the population. Aim: To examine the association between Brazilian dietary patterns (DP) and the WF associated to the production of the food products purchased in Brazilian households between 2003 and 2009. Methods: Cross-sectional study with household food purchase data provided by the Household Budget Surveys for the years 2002-2003 and 2008-2009. The purchased foods were matched with WF data. The average per capita WF was described into food groups, macro-region, area and level of income. The DP were estimated for the censitary sectors by principal component analysis. The differences observed between the two surveys were tested with the t Student test for independent means, with a significance level of 0.05. The effects of dietary patterns on WF and components were estimated by multivariate linear regression. Results: The average water footprint, associated with the production of foods purchased in Brazilian households, was 2,650 m³ per year per capita (EP ± 37.3 m³ per year per capita) in 2003 and 2,446 m³ per year per capita (EP ± 37.3 m³ per year per capita) in 2009. Approximately 91.4 per cent of these values corresponded to the green component, 4.7 per cent to the blue component and 3.9 per cent to the gray component. All regions showed a reduction in WF in 2009, but this was significant only in the Northeast and Southeast regions. It was observed a positive linear trend between WF and income. Six DP were identified and characterized by the type of protein source: DP1 by red and processed meat, DP2 by milk and eggs, DP3 by fish and oilseeds, DP4 by cereals and legumes, DP5 by fish and processed foods and DP6 by fish, soy-based meat analogues and other vegetable sources of protein. The DP1 and DP6 patterns showed an upward trend in 2009, but the impact of PA1 on WF was three times higher than of PA6. The PA6 was suggested as a more sustainable pattern, in agreement with the literature and with the contemporary food guides recommendations. Conclusions: Socioeconomic changes in the first decade of this century reflected in modifications concerning the dietary patterns of the population, which affected the WF. Interventions that consider both the socioeconomic variants and healthy and sustainable food consumption are necessary.

Maintenir la qualité des ressources en eau est l'un des défis majeurs auxquels la société d’aujourd’hui doit faire face. Il est donc primordial que ce critère soit intégré correctement dans les méthodes d’analyse d’impacts environnementaux, tel que l’Analyse du Cycle de Vie (ACV). Cependant, l’estimation de la qualité de l’eau et la manière dont cette information est utilisée dans les modèles d’évaluation d’impacts soulève un certain nombre de challenges méthodologiques, d’où la problématique de recherche : « Comment considérer la qualité de l’eau dans l’évaluation des impacts de l’utilisation de l’eau en ACV, de l’inventaire aux Aires de Protection ? ». Ce travail de thèse propose dans un premier temps une étude approfondie du rôle et de la nécessité de l’information « qualité de l’eau » dans l’évaluation des impacts de plusieurs type d’utilisation d’eau (usage consommatif, dégradatif et amélioration de la qualité). Cette étude s’applique aux différentes chaines de causalité de manière mécanistique, jusqu’aux trois Aires de Protection (AoP) santé humaine, qualité des écosystèmes et ressources naturelles. Afin d’améliorer la compréhension et la considération des impacts de l’utilisation de l’eau sur l’AoP ressources naturelles, un cadre théorique consensuel élaboré en collaboration avec WULCA (le groupe Water Use in LCA, de l’UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative) est défini. Ce cadre fournit une base solide pour l’élaboration cohérente de méthodes d’analyse d’impacts, permettant d’évaluer la diminution irréversible de la disponibilité physique de l'eau douce et/ou de son degré d'utilisabilité pour les générations futures. La thèse se conclut par le développement d’un modèle de caractérisation d’impacts de la dégradation des ressources en eau causée par des émissions. Des facteurs de caractérisation sont calculés pour cinq métaux, au niveau midpoint. L’application de ces indicateurs permet d’améliorer l’interprétabilité des résultats concernant les défis futurs liés aux ressources en eau ainsi que les résultats des impacts sur la santé humaine liés aux problèmes de qualité d’eau / Maintaining the quality of water resources is one of the major challenges society faces today. It is therefore essential that this criterion be properly integrated into environmental impact assessment methods, such as Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). However, the estimation of water quality and how this information is used in impact assessment models raises a number of methodological challenges; hence, the general research question is “How to consider water quality in water use impact assessment in LCA, from inventory to Areas of Protection?” This thesis first provides a detailed study about the role and necessity of "water quality" information in assessing impacts of different types of water use (consumptive and degradative use, as well as quality improvement). This study applies to the different cause-effect chains in a mechanistic way, in view of the three Areas of Protection (AoP) human health, ecosystem quality and natural resources. In order to improve the understanding and consideration of the water use impacts on the AoP natural resources, a consensual framework, developed jointly with WULCA (Water Use in LCA group of the UNEP-SETAC Life Cycle Initiative), is presented. This framework provides a solid basis for the consistent development of impact characterization models to assess the irreversible reduction in physical availability of freshwater and its quality-based usability for future generations. The thesis ends with the development of a characterization model for water resource degradation impacts caused by emissions. Characterization factors are calculated for five metals at the midpoint level. The application of these indicators improves the interpretability of LCA results regarding future water resource challenges and water-quality related impacts on human health.

Valuation draws heavily on the economic theory of demand. This tells us that users have preferences for water and are willing to pay different amounts for units of water put to different uses. Water should be allocated between these uses to the point that equalises the value of the last or 'marginal' unit. In other words, it is impossible to find a higher value for this marginal unit. Application of this principle of equi-marginal returns requires us to have some clarity about water values in competing uses. This is also important since water is rarely free to supply, and therefore suppliers need to charge a price that is in some sense equal to the supply cost and value to achieve full cost recovery. Even though inclusion of this economic rationale in the management of water resources has been a widely accepted principle, and is included in national and the EU policies, the actual practice does not fully reflect this endorsement. While many countries recognise the vital nature of water resources, few, if any, pursue a rigorous analysis of revealing the explicit value of water as a basis for determining whether water is actually being allocated to sectors in order to maximise its overall benefit to society. Aspiring to be the first Hydro Nation, maximising the social return from its water uses ought to be a policy objective in Scotland. This thesis constructs a portfolio of different water uses, estimating the approximate value for each and their current allocation in Scotland. This aims to stimulate an informed debate on actual allocation of water among different uses, relative values and trade-offs of these allocations in Scotland so that alternative allocation scenarios can also be discussed. I then focus on the valuation of water by manufacturing industries, the biggest consumptive use and a significant added value creator in Scotland. I investigate the factors that affect the valuation of water and the responsiveness to prices in manufacturing industries using a meta-analysis technique. These values are obviously not the same for each manufacturing sector due the nature of their use and value of their final output. Some sectors create premium value out of their use. The whisky industry stands out as a water-intensive and high value creating sector, as well as a vital contributor to the rural and overall Scottish economy. It is analysed here as the first case study using water footprint and marginal productivity analyses methods, both analyses highlighting the importance of quality and quantity of local water resources in Scotland and its value to the industry. The second case study is the livestock industry, which has been overlooked in the valuation of water use literature yet is significant for livelihoods in rural Scotland where reduced land capability limits agricultural production options. Following the portfolio of water uses, meta-analysis and case studies that analyse the current situation of value and allocation, I explore how the current situation can be improved through the application of tradability. Currently the main problem in Scotland is not the amount of water used or abstracted, but the pollution reaching water bodies as the result of run-off and leaching from agricultural fields. Therefore, the feasibility of trading water rights is more concerned with the permits to pollute rather than the rights to use. Using a linear optimisation I look into the potential of designing a payment for ecosystem services scheme based on tradability of water pollution in agricultural catchments that are affected by from diffuse pollution. The results indicate that trading schemes help reduce the cost of pollution to all users while creating additional income for farms. For constructing more precise pollution rights and robust schemes more research efforts are required.

Wassernutzung und Abbau der Frischwasser-Ressourcen sind heutzutage ein Thema, das als so wichtig wahrgenommen wird wie der Klimawandel. Wasser wird somit zunehmend Auswirkungen auf den ökonomischen Wert von Unternehmen haben. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist es, den monetären Wert des Wassers mithilfe des Wasser-Fußabdrucks zu bestimmen. Hierfür werden nach einer kurzen Einführung in Kapitel 2 der ökologische Fußabdruck, der CO2-Fußabdruck und der Wasser-Fußabdruck kurz vorgestellt und in Beziehung zueinander gesetzt. Anschließend wird der Wasser-Fußabdruck diskutiert und sowohl in die Ökobilanzierung als auch in das Instrumentarium der Umweltleistungsmessung eingeordnet. Danach werden die Zielgrößen des Unternehmenswertes beschrieben und der Zusammenhang von ökologischer und ökonomischer Leistungsmessung dargestellt. Auf dem Stufenmodell zum Wertbeitrag aufbauend werden verschiedene Ansätze zur Integration ökologischer Aspekte in den Unternehmenswert diskutiert. In Kapitel 3 wird dann die Methode entwickelt, um den Wasser-Fußabdruck zu bestimmen und auszuwerten und anschließend mithilfe der Werttreiberanalyse, des Water Value Added und der Kumulierten Wasserintensitäten den ökonomischen Beitrag des Wassers zu berechnen. In der Fallstudie wird die Methode angewendet und anschließend in Kapitel 5 anhand der zuvor vorgestellten Kriterien bewertet. Abschließend werden einige Handlungsempfehlungen zur Anwendung und Weiterentwicklung der Methode gegeben. Als Ergebnis der Arbeit kann die Frage beantwortet werden, wie ein Unternehmen den Einfluss des Wassers auf den eigenen Unternehmenswert und den ökonomischen Wert des Wassers bestimmen kann.