Wassernutzung und Abbau der Frischwasser-Ressourcen sind heutzutage ein Thema, das als so wichtig wahrgenommen wird wie der Klimawandel. Wasser wird somit zunehmend Auswirkungen auf den ökonomischen Wert von Unternehmen haben. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit ist es, den monetären Wert des Wassers mithilfe des Wasser-Fußabdrucks zu bestimmen. Hierfür werden nach einer kurzen Einführung in Kapitel 2 der ökologische Fußabdruck, der CO2-Fußabdruck und der Wasser-Fußabdruck kurz vorgestellt und in Beziehung zueinander gesetzt. Anschließend wird der Wasser-Fußabdruck diskutiert und sowohl in die Ökobilanzierung als auch in das Instrumentarium der Umweltleistungsmessung eingeordnet. Danach werden die Zielgrößen des Unternehmenswertes beschrieben und der Zusammenhang von ökologischer und ökonomischer Leistungsmessung dargestellt. Auf dem Stufenmodell zum Wertbeitrag aufbauend werden verschiedene Ansätze zur Integration ökologischer Aspekte in den Unternehmenswert diskutiert. In Kapitel 3 wird dann die Methode entwickelt, um den Wasser-Fußabdruck zu bestimmen und auszuwerten und anschließend mithilfe der Werttreiberanalyse, des Water Value Added und der Kumulierten Wasserintensitäten den ökonomischen Beitrag des Wassers zu berechnen. In der Fallstudie wird die Methode angewendet und anschließend in Kapitel 5 anhand der zuvor vorgestellten Kriterien bewertet. Abschließend werden einige Handlungsempfehlungen zur Anwendung und Weiterentwicklung der Methode gegeben. Als Ergebnis der Arbeit kann die Frage beantwortet werden, wie ein Unternehmen den Einfluss des Wassers auf den eigenen Unternehmenswert und den ökonomischen Wert des Wassers bestimmen kann.

Water is an irreplaceable resource, covering around two thirds of Earth´s surface, although only one percent is available for use. Except from households, other human activities such as agriculture and industries use water. Water use and pollution can make water unavailable to some users and places already exposed for water scarcity are especially vulnerable for such changes. Increased water use and factors such as climate change make water scarcity to a global concern and to protect the environment and humans it will be necessary to manage this problem. The concept of water footprint was introduced in 2002 as a tool to assess impact from freshwater use. Since then, many methods concerning water use and degradation have been developed and today there are several studies made on water footprint. Still, the majority of these studies only include water use. The aim of this study was to evaluate three different methods due to their ability to calculate water footprint for the production of trucks, with the qualification that the methods should consider both water use and emissions. Three methods were applied on two Volvo factories in Sweden, located in Umeå and Gothenburg. Investigations of water flows in background processes were made as a life cycle assessment in Gabi software. The water flows were thereafter assessed with the H2Oe, the Water Footprint Network and the Ecological scarcity method. The results showed that for the factory in Umeå the water footprint values were 2.62 Mm3 H2Oe, 43.08 Mm3 and 354.7 MEP per 30,000 cabins. The variation in units and values indicates that it is complicated to compare water footprints for products calculated with different methods. The study also showed that the H2Oe and the Ecological scarcity method account for the water scarcity situation. A review of the concordance with the new ISO standard for water footprint was made but none of the methods satisfies all criteria for elementary flows. Comparison between processes at the factories showed that a flocculation chemical gives a larger water footprint for the H2Oe and the Ecological scarcity method, while the water footprint for the WFN method and carbon footprint is larger for electricity. This indicates that environmental impact is considered different depending on method and that a process favorable regarding to climate change not necessarily is beneficial for environmental impact in the perspective of water use. / Vatten är en ovärderlig resurs som täcker cirka två tredjedelar av jordens yta men där endast en procent är tillgänglig för användning. Människan använder vatten till olika ändamål, förutom i hushåll används vatten bland annat inom jordbruk och industrier. Vattenanvändning och utsläpp av föroreningar kan göra vatten otillgängligt, vilket kan vara extra känsligt i de områden där människor redan lider av vattenbrist. Den ökade vattenanvändningen tillsammans med exempelvis klimatförändringar bidrar till att göra vattenbrist till en global angelägenhet och det kommer att krävas åtgärder för att skydda människor och miljö. År 2002 introducerades begreppet vattenfotavtryck som ett verktyg för att bedöma miljöpåverkan från vattenanvändning. Sedan dess har begreppet utvecklats till att inkludera många olika beräkningsmetoder men många av de befintliga studierna har uteslutit föroreningar och bara fokuserat på vattenkonsumtion. Syftet med denna rapport var att utvärdera tre olika metoder med avseende på deras förmåga att beräkna vattenfotavtryck vid produktion av lastbilar, med villkoret att metoderna ska inkludera både vattenkonsumtion och föroreningar. I studien användes tre metoder för att beräkna vattenfotavtrycket för två Volvo fabriker placerade i Umeå och Göteborg. En livscykelanalys utfördes i livscykelanalysverktyget Gabi, för att kartlägga vattenflöden från bakgrundsprocesser. Därefter värderades vattenflödena med metoderna; H2Oe, WFN och Ecological scarcity. Resultatet för fabriken i Umeå gav för respektive metod ett vattenfotavtryck motsvarande 2,62 Mm3 H2Oe, 43,08 Mm3 respektive 354,7 MEP per 30 000 lastbilshytter. Variationen i enheter och storlek tyder på att det kan vara svårt att jämföra vattenfotavtryck för produkter som beräknats med olika metoder. Studien visade att H2Oe och Ecological scarcity tar hänsyn till vattentillgängligheten i området. En granskning av metodernas överensstämmelse med den nya ISO standarden för vattenfotavtryck gjordes men ingen av metoderna i studien uppfyllde alla kriterier. Av de processer som ingår i fabrikerna visade det sig att vattenfotavtrycket för H2Oe och Ecological scarcity metoden var störst för en fällningskemikalie. För den tredje metoden och koldioxid var avtrycket störst för elektriciteten. Detta tyder på att olika metoder värderar miljöpåverkan olika samt att de processer som anses bättre ur miljösynpunkt för klimatförändringar inte nödvändigtvis behöver vara bäst vid vattenanvändning.

A água é essencial à manutenção da vida. No entanto, com as situações de estresse hídrico - disponibilidade hídrica inferior a 1.700 m per capita ao ano (FALKENMARK, 1989) - vivenciadas em diversos pontos do planeta, somadas ao acelerado crescimento da população mundial, os problemas relacionados ao uso da água tendem a aumentar. Neste contexto, a pegada hídrica (PH), que é um indicador de sustentabilidade ambiental, se torna uma importante ferramenta de gestão de recursos hídricos pois indica o consumo de água doce com base em seus usos. O presente trabalho objetiva mensurar a pegada hídrica em função das componentes industrial, doméstica e alimentar da população do bairro Rocinha, um aglomerado subnormal localizado no município do Rio de Janeiro. A pesquisa se deteve a um Estudo de Caso de 20 sub-bairros da comunidade. Sua abordagem foi quantitativa, contando com uma amostra de 203 domicílios, erro amostral de 7% e grau de confiança de 93%. Para tal, foi utilizada como ferramenta de cálculo o modelo Water Footprint Network do ano de 2005. Os resultados indicaram que, em média, a PH dos indivíduos que compõem a amostra é de 1715 m/ano per capita assim divididos: PH de consumo doméstico de água de 175 m/ano per capita (479 l/hab.dia); PH de produtos agrícolas igual a 1470 m/ano per capita, e PH de produtos industrializados de 70 m/ano per capita. Os resultados obtidos sugerem que os indivíduos da amostra com uma maior despesa mensal tendem a ter pegadas hídricas industrial e total também maiores. / Water is essential for sustaining life. However, the situations of hydric stress - less than 1.700 m per capita water availability per year (FALKENMARK, 1989) - experienced in many parts of the world, coupled with the rapid growth of the global population, the problems related to water use tend to increase. In this context, the water footprint (WF), which is an indicator of environmental sustainability becomes an important tool for water resource management indicates the consumption of fresh water based on their uses. This study aimed to measure the water footprint as a function of industrial components, domestic and feed of the population of the Rocinhas neighborhood, a cluster subnormal located in the municipality of Rio de Janeiro. The research was focused on a case study of 20 sub-districts of the community. Its approach was quantitative, with a sample of 203 households, sampling error of 7% and confidence level of 93%. For this purpose, was used as the tool for calculating the Water Footprint Network model year 2005. The results indicated that, on average, the WF of the individuals in the sample is 1715 m/ year per capita divided as follows: WF of domestic water consumption of 175 m/ year per capita (479 l/ inhab.day), WF agricultural products equal to 1470 m/ year per capita, and WF industrial products 70 m/ year per capita. The results suggest that individuals in the sample with a higher monthly expenditure tend to have industrial water footprints and overall greater.

A água é essencial à manutenção da vida. No entanto, com as situações de estresse hídrico - disponibilidade hídrica inferior a 1.700 m per capita ao ano (FALKENMARK, 1989) - vivenciadas em diversos pontos do planeta, somadas ao acelerado crescimento da população mundial, os problemas relacionados ao uso da água tendem a aumentar. Neste contexto, a pegada hídrica (PH), que é um indicador de sustentabilidade ambiental, se torna uma importante ferramenta de gestão de recursos hídricos pois indica o consumo de água doce com base em seus usos. O presente trabalho objetiva mensurar a pegada hídrica em função das componentes industrial, doméstica e alimentar da população do bairro Rocinha, um aglomerado subnormal localizado no município do Rio de Janeiro. A pesquisa se deteve a um Estudo de Caso de 20 sub-bairros da comunidade. Sua abordagem foi quantitativa, contando com uma amostra de 203 domicílios, erro amostral de 7% e grau de confiança de 93%. Para tal, foi utilizada como ferramenta de cálculo o modelo Water Footprint Network do ano de 2005. Os resultados indicaram que, em média, a PH dos indivíduos que compõem a amostra é de 1715 m/ano per capita assim divididos: PH de consumo doméstico de água de 175 m/ano per capita (479 l/hab.dia); PH de produtos agrícolas igual a 1470 m/ano per capita, e PH de produtos industrializados de 70 m/ano per capita. Os resultados obtidos sugerem que os indivíduos da amostra com uma maior despesa mensal tendem a ter pegadas hídricas industrial e total também maiores. / Water is essential for sustaining life. However, the situations of hydric stress - less than 1.700 m per capita water availability per year (FALKENMARK, 1989) - experienced in many parts of the world, coupled with the rapid growth of the global population, the problems related to water use tend to increase. In this context, the water footprint (WF), which is an indicator of environmental sustainability becomes an important tool for water resource management indicates the consumption of fresh water based on their uses. This study aimed to measure the water footprint as a function of industrial components, domestic and feed of the population of the Rocinhas neighborhood, a cluster subnormal located in the municipality of Rio de Janeiro. The research was focused on a case study of 20 sub-districts of the community. Its approach was quantitative, with a sample of 203 households, sampling error of 7% and confidence level of 93%. For this purpose, was used as the tool for calculating the Water Footprint Network model year 2005. The results indicated that, on average, the WF of the individuals in the sample is 1715 m/ year per capita divided as follows: WF of domestic water consumption of 175 m/ year per capita (479 l/ inhab.day), WF agricultural products equal to 1470 m/ year per capita, and WF industrial products 70 m/ year per capita. The results suggest that individuals in the sample with a higher monthly expenditure tend to have industrial water footprints and overall greater.

This research brings an approach of the quantifyingof virtual water built-in food in different forms of production and trading. This theme suggests new fronts of analysis in the researchof water resources,bringing the water footprint as well as a new tool for this purpose. Environmental education and sustainability enter this bulge showing the changes which presented a series of data highlighting this issue. The main objective of this research was to analyze the quantity of water that is attached to these products. These products are gotten from long distances and are marketed in Erechim and with the distance of transportation , the environment is impacted with a large water use. Otherside we tried to know about these products obtained with a lesser proximity of their trading, just to balance this calculation of the virtual water . This comparison brought information that the same product can be more sustainable, and less aggressive to the environment, to the point of just having in their method of production and trading a the differential form of production with minor uses of pesticides and marketing, being nearer the production , which it is consuming a heightened amount of virtual water. This water is virtual, however, is precisely calculated to give a warning to society that consumes a product that ends up detaching of sustainability. It is concluded that food produced in long distances consuming a large amount of virtual water and just because they are large quantities transported in long distances, they suffer amortization obtained through calculations. These amounts of virtual water embedded in major life cycle of the products surveyed and ownership of water resources in the forms of production generate major concerns. / A presente pesquisa traz uma aproximação da quantificação de água virtual embutida nos alimentos em diferentes formas de produção e comercialização. Tema que sugere novas frentes de análise em termos de pesquisa para os recursos hídricos, trazendo a pegada hídrica também como uma nova ferramenta para esta finalidade. A educação ambiental e a sustentabilidade entram neste bojo com a indicação de mudanças onde apresentadas uma série de dados realçando esta questão. O objetivo principal desta pesquisa foi analisar uma quantidade de água que esta anexada nos produtos. Sendo produtos obtidos de longas distâncias e comercializados em Erechim, que, com a distância do transporte, acabam impactando o meio ambiente com uma grande utilização de água. A contra ponto buscou-se tomar conhecimento de produtos obtidos com uma proximidade menor de sua comercialização, justamente para balizar este cálculo da água virtual. Esta comparação trouxe informações de que um mesmo produto pode ser mais sustentável, sendo menos agressivo ao meio ambiente, ao ponto de apenas ter em seu método de produção e de comercialização um diferencial pela forma de produção com menores usos de agrotóxicos e na comercialização sendo mais próxima da produção, onde acaba não consumindo uma exacerbada quantidade de água virtual. Esta água é virtual, porém, é calculada justamente para dar um alerta para a sociedade que consome um produto que acaba se desvinculando da sustentabilidade. Conclui-se que os alimentos produzidos em longas distâncias agregam uma grande quantidade de água virtual e justamente por serem grandes quantidades transportadas á grandes distâncias que sofre uma amortização obtida através dos cálculos. Estas quantidades de água virtual são de grandes embutidas no ciclo de vida dos produtos pesquisados e a apropriação dos recursos hídricos com as formas de produção geram grandes preocupações.

The concepts of virtual water and water footprint are being increasingly used as management tools and relevant indicators to the appropriation of water resources consumption. Virtual water is the amount of fresh water incorporated into the production process of any goods or services consumed by people. The objective of this research is to measure the balance of trade of virtual water, from 1997 to 2012, in the state of CearÃ. For this purpose, were selected the main agricultural commodities of export tariffs and import of commodities; well as was used to water footprint methodology,which includes direct and indirect consumption of water, at all locations in which occur the productive chains of goods and services. As a result of quantification, for the case study of CearÃ, which is located in the semiarid Northeast Brazil and faces problems of water shortages, imports exceed exports in 44,629,598.5 million liters of virtual water. Cearà is, therefore, a net importer of virtual water. The United States is the main destination of Cearà exports of virtual water (12,188,074.6 million liters). The Argentina is the principal source of imports of Cearà of virtual water (42,219,370.0 million liters). Considering the total volume traded of virtual water, in liters, the main export products (cashews) and import (wheat) present, in liters per kilogram, patterns of total water footprints, respectively, 39,549.9 and 4,411.2. With the purpose of reducing the water footprint, of Cearà products, may be employed in the agricultural sector for measures:increasing productivity green footprint (rainwater) in rainfed agriculture; add the total production in rainfed agriculture; increase productivity of blue footprint (surface or underground water) on irrigated agriculture; decrease the relationship between blue and green water footprints; reduce the footprint gray (polluted water), through the reduction of the use of artificial fertilizers and pesticides. So that consumers are made aware, with respect to the products they consume, it may be useful to put information about the water footprint on the labels of the goods. / Os conceitos de Ãgua virtual e pegada hÃdrica estÃo sendo, cada vez mais, usados como relevantes ferramentas de gestÃo e indicadores de apropriaÃÃo de consumo de recursos hÃdricos. A Ãgua virtual à a quantidade de Ãgua doce incorporada ao processo produtivo de quaisquer bens ou serviÃos consumidos pelas pessoas. O objetivo desta pesquisa à mensurar o saldo da balanÃa comercial de Ãgua virtual, de 1997 a 2012, do estado do CearÃ. Para esse fim, foram selecionados os principais produtos bÃsicos agrÃcolas das pautas de exportaÃÃo e importaÃÃo de commodities; bem como foi utilizada a metodologia da pegada hÃdrica, que contempla os consumos direto e indireto de Ãgua, em todos os locais em que ocorrem as cadeias produtivas dos bens e serviÃos. Como resultado da quantificaÃÃo, para o estudo de caso do CearÃ, que està localizado no semiÃrido da RegiÃo Nordeste do Brasil e enfrenta problemas de escassez hÃdrica, as importaÃÃes superam as exportaÃÃes em 44.629.598,5 milhÃes de litros de Ãgua virtual. O Cearà Ã, portanto, importador lÃquido de Ãgua virtual. Os Estados Unidos sÃo o principal destino das exportaÃÃes cearenses de Ãgua virtual (12.188.074,6 milhÃes de litros). A Argentina à a principal origem das importaÃÃes cearenses de Ãgua virtual (42.219.370,0 milhÃes de litros). Considerando-se o volume total comercializado de Ãgua virtual, em litros, os principais produtos de exportaÃÃo (castanha de caju) e importaÃÃo (trigo) apresentam, em litros por quilograma, padrÃes de pegadas hÃdricas totais de, respectivamente, 39.549,9 e 4.411,2. Com a finalidade de reduzir a pegada hÃdrica, dos produtos cearenses, podem ser empregadas medidas no setor agrÃcola para: aumentar a produtividade da pegada verde (Ãgua da chuva) na agricultura de sequeiro; acrescer a produÃÃo total na agricultura de sequeiro; aumentar a produtividade da pegada azul (Ãgua superficial ou subterrÃnea) na agricultura irrigada; diminuir a relaÃÃo entre as pegadas hÃdricas azul e verde; reduzir a pegada cinza (Ãgua poluÃda), por meio da diminuiÃÃo do uso de fertilizantes e pesticidas artificiais. Para que os consumidores sejam conscientizados, com relaÃÃo aos produtos que consomem, pode ser Ãtil colocar informaÃÃes sobre a pegada hÃdrica nos rÃtulos das mercadorias.

nÃo hà / O presente trabalho tem como objetivo propor uma metodologia de cÃlculo para mensurar a pegada hÃdrica (PH) na atividade de construÃÃo civil imobiliÃria. A pegada hÃdrica à um indicador empÃrico da quantidade, do perÃodo e do local onde a Ãgua à consumida e poluÃda, que à medido ao longo de toda a cadeia produtiva de um produto, mostrando nÃo sà o volume de Ãgua, como tambÃm o tipo de uso da Ãgua (consuntivo, de chuva, superficial ou subterrÃnea, ou a poluiÃÃo da Ãgua), a localizaÃÃo e o momento em que a Ãgua foi usada. Para calcular a pegada hÃdrica na atividade de construÃÃo civil imobiliÃria foi utilizada a metodologia de Hoekstra et al. (2011), utilizando o conceito parcial de âÃgua azulâ â um tipo de medida de apropriaÃÃo da pegada hÃdrica determinada pelo consumo, pela evaporaÃÃo e pelo escoamento para o oceano â em seu uso/consumo para propÃsitos humanos, a fim de estimar o quantum de Ãgua à necessÃrio para produÃÃo de um edifÃcio residencial. A mediÃÃo foi segregada em trÃs grupos que compÃem a atividade de construÃÃo civil, sendo estes: mÃo de obra, materiais e serviÃos. Os resultados comprovaram, estatisticamente, que uma amostra de 90 trabalhadores da mÃo de obra pÃde ser extrapolada à mÃdia de trabalhadores utilizados ao longo da obra (115 trabalhadores), permitindo mensurar o volume de consumo de Ãgua (pegada hÃdrica) para o grupo mÃo de obra de 1.124.068,2 m3 de Ãgua (distribuÃda em Direta e Indireta), para o grupo materiais formados por 128 itens que possuem componente hÃdrico a pegada hÃdrica de 30.100,5 m3 de Ãgua (Indireta) e para o grupo serviÃos formados por 92 itens que utilizam Ãgua em suas execuÃÃes a pegada hÃdrica de 584.423,1 m3 de Ãgua (Direta), ou seja, no total do empreendimento a pegada hÃdrica de 1.738.591,8 m3. O montante total de consumo de Ãgua (1.738.591,8 m3) dividido pela Ãrea total do empreendimento (em m2) resultou em 93,98 m3/m2. Conclui-se que a pegada hÃdrica à uma metodologia de cÃlculo capaz de mensurar do volume de Ãgua consumido na atividade de construÃÃo civil permitindo que esse volume seja estimado na fase de planejamento da obra para melhor fornecimento pelos ÃrgÃos pÃblicos de gestÃo, para estimativa mais prÃxima do real da extraÃÃo voluntÃria que empresas de engenharia precisam realizar na perfuraÃÃo de poÃos e para avaliar possÃveis impactos ambientais desse recurso escasso. / This paper aims to propose a calculation methodology to measure the water footprint (PH) in the real estate construction activity. The water footprint is an empirical quantity indicator, the period and the place where the water is consumed and polluted, which is measured over the entire productive chain of a product showing not only the volume of water, as well as the type of water use (consumptive, rain, surface or underground, or water pollution), the location and the time when water was used. To calculate the water footprint in housing construction activity was used the methodology of Hoekstra et al. (2011) using the partial concept of 'blue water' - a kind of measure of ownership of the water footprint determined by consumption, evaporation and runoff into the ocean - in its use / consumption for human purposes in order to estimate the quantum of water is required to produce a residential building. The measurement was divided into three groups that make up civil construction activity, namely: labor, materials and services. The results showed statistically that a sample of 90 workers could be extrapolated to the average of workers employed throughout the work (115 employees), allowing to measure the volume of water consumption (water footprint) for the group of hand work was 1124068200.0 l of water (distributed direct and indirect) for the materials group consisting of 128 items that have water component, the water footprint was 30,100,539.5 l of water (Indirect) and for the service group, consisting of 92 items that use water, the water footprint was 584,427,948.4 l of water (Direct), ie the total of the enterprise the water footprint of 1738596688.0 l . The most relevant consumption workmanship were given to the categories 'liquid' and 'other higienes' in PH Direct and 'industrialized' and 'transport' in PH Indirect; for the most outstanding materials was evidenced in 'irons CA' (PH Indirect), and in services, the largest water consumption was evident in the service of 'mechanical protection' (PH Direct). The total amount of water consumption (1738596688.0 l) divided by the total area of the project (in m2) resulted in 93978.2 l / m2, where the housing unit of 157.14 m2 has a water footprint of 14,767. 734.2 l and 167.12 m2 one water footprint of 15705636.8 l. It follows that the water footprint is a calculation method capable of measuring the volume of water consumed in construction activity, allowing builders estimate this volume from the work planning stage in order to manage this scarce environmental resource

O arroz é uma das principais culturas irrigadas no mundo e com as maiores quantidades de água aplicada. No estado de Santa Fe, Argentina, o arroz é a principal cultura irrigada, com eficiências de irrigação muito baixas (25 a 40%). O método tradicional de inundação contínua (Ic) não aproveita as precipitações pluviais, que representam entre 30 a 40% da evapotranspiração real (ETr). Foram desenvolvidos experimentos em diferentes agro-ecossistemas em San Javier (Santa Fe), objetivando avaliar o arroz com aspersão (AS), inundação intermitente (In) e Ic, visando aumentar as eficiências de irrigação e de uso da água. Na safra 2011-12 predominou Planossolo nátrico (PlaNa), altamente adensado e, na safra 2012-13, Regossolo abrupto (RegAb), com boa drenagem. A variedade de arroz utilizada foi Puitá INTA CL, índica e anaeróbica. A aplicação do Nitrogênio (2011-2012) foi feita de duas maneiras: 20% na semeadura e o restante no perfilhamento, segundo manejo habitual dos produtores (adubação tradicional, AT), e a maneira alternativa, parcelando a adubação (AP). Na safra 2012-2013 foram avaliadas diferentes doses de adubação: T0, testemunha; T1 e T2, com 20 e 40% do requerimento total do N respectivamente. O delineamento estatístico em 2011-12 foi parcelas divididas e fatorial em 2012-13. Em Ic foi mantida uma altura de água constante (6 a 8 cm) e, em In, manteve-se sempre o solo PlaNa saturado e RegAb com potencial mátrico de -10 kPa. Em AS, no PlaNa utilizou-se como controle -25 kPa mudando para -10 kPa no RegAb. Foi realizado um balanço hídrico (BH) determinando, entre outras componentes, lâmina de irrigação bruta (Lib); ETr e percolação profunda (PerIr). Foi observada a fenologia, avaliada as taxas de crescimento e índice de área foliar. Na colheita foi determinada a produtividade (PG), seus componentes e concentrações de N no tecido vegetal. Foram determinadas as eficiências de irrigação, de uso de água, água virtual e pegada hídrica. Em 2011-12 a PG foi semelhante nos manejos Ic e In (média de 9,8 Mg ha-1), com redução de 24% no AS devido a forte estresse hídrico. No PlaNa a taxa de percolação foi 2,8 mm d-1, resultando a Lib e PerIr dos manejos In e Ic quase iguais, de 6.300 e 1.540 m3 ha-1 respectivamente. Em 2012- 13 a PG foi similar em todos os manejos da água (média de 10 Mg ha-1), com resposta significativa às doses de adubação. A taxa de percolação do RegAb triplicou a PlaNa, pelo que a Lib e PerIr dos manejos Ic, In e AS apresentaram grandes diferenças: 11.600, 9.120 e 5.320 m3 ha-1 para Lib e 8.580, 6.190 e 1.980 m3 ha-1 para PerIr. A biomassa aérea teve comportamento contrastante, com crescimento sigmóide em 2011-12, embora linear em 2012-13. A pegada hídrica da produção de arroz em San Javier foi de 261,7 Mm3 ano-1, representando a água azul, verde e cinza 52, 41 e 7%, respectivamente. In apresentou-se como o manejo mais versátil, sendo sua utilização promissora, no entanto AS pode ser utilizado em solos com boa drenagem. Nestes solos seria mais apropriada a adubação parcelada. / Rice is one of the main crops under irrigation in the world, with the highest amount of water applied. In Santa Fe, Argentina, rice is the main crop under irrigation. The traditional method of continuous flooding (CF) does not use rainfall (R), which represents 30 to 40% of the actual evapotranspiration (ETa). Experiments were conducted in different agroecosystems in San Javier, Santa Fe, with the aim of assessing rice cultivation with sprinkle irrigation (SI), intermittent flooding (IF), and CF to increase irrigation and water use efficiencies. In 2011-2012, the predominant soil was typic Natraqualf (Nat), highly compacted, and in 2012-2013 it was Orthent Abruptic (OrtAb), with good drainage. The rice variety used was lowland, Puitá INTA CL. 20% of the fertilizer with N (2011-2012) was applied at sowing and the rest at tillering stage, according to the farmers\' usual management (traditional fertilization T) and an alternative management, thus resulting in partial fertilization (PF). In 2012- 2013, different doses of N were evaluated: T0, no fertilizer; T1 and T2, with 20 and 40% of the total N requirement, respectively. In 2011-2012, the statistical design consisted of split plots, while in 2012-2013 the design was a factorial one. In CF ponded water was maintained at a constant height of 6-8 cm during the whole cycle, whereas in IF Nat was always saturated or with -10 kPa in the case of OrtAb. In SI treatments, -25 kPa was used as control in Nat, changing to -10 kPa in OrtAb. A water balance (WB) was made, determining, among other components, gross irrigation depth (GId), ETa, and deep percolation arising from irrigation (DPir). Phenology was observed, and growth rates and leaf area index were evaluated. Yields (Y, 14%), its components, and the concentrations of nitrogen in plant tissues were determined at harvest time. The efficiencies of irrigation, water use, and water footprint were determined. In 2011-2012, Y was similar in CF and IF managements (average of 9.8 Mg ha-1), with a 24% reduction in SI due to strong water stress. Nat had a percolation of 2.8 mm day-1, thus GId and DPir in IF and CF managements were very similar -- 6,300 and 1,540 m3 ha-1, respectively. In 2012-2013, Y was similar in all water managements (average of 10 Mg ha-1), with a significant response to fertilization rates. The percolation of OrtAb tripled that of Nat, so GId and DPir in CF, IF, and SI systems had significant differences: 11,600, 9,120, and 5,320 m3 ha-1 for GId; and 8,580, 6,190, and 1,980 m3 ha-1 for DPir. The aboveground dry weight had a contrasting behavior, with a sigmoidal growth in 2011-2012 and a linear growth in 2012-2013. The water footprint of rice production in San Javier was 261.7 Mm3 year-1 -- blue, green, and gray water representing 52, 41, and 7%, respectively. IF management was the most versatile, being a promising technique to be used in the field, while SI can be used in soils with good drainage. In these soils, splitting fertilization would be more appropriate.

Submitted by Geandra Rodrigues (geandrar@gmail.com) on 2018-09-04T15:06:15Z No. of bitstreams: 1 thaismoreiradeclasse.pdf: 3976758 bytes, checksum: e46c71af43057b5b2c6c347fa8c65cb8 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2018-09-04T15:53:42Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 thaismoreiradeclasse.pdf: 3976758 bytes, checksum: e46c71af43057b5b2c6c347fa8c65cb8 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-09-04T15:53:42Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 thaismoreiradeclasse.pdf: 3976758 bytes, checksum: e46c71af43057b5b2c6c347fa8c65cb8 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-05-23 / Nesta pesquisa foram realizados estudos em parcelas experimentais para a determinação da pegada hídrica, características quali-quantitativas da água de escoamento superficial e comparar a erosão real com os valores estimados pela USLE (Universal Soil Loss Equation), na atividade de produção leiteira extensiva. O experimento foi desenvolvido na fazenda da Embrapa Gado de Leite, situada no município de Coronel Pacheco – MG, utilizando gado mestiço (girolando) e dados meteorológicos. Foram montadas 12 parcelas experimentais usando 3 tipos de forrageiras, Panicum maximum cv. Zuri, Brachiaria decumbens cv. Basilisk e Panicum maximum cv. Quênia, com quatro repetições espaciais para cada forrageira. Foram calculadas as águas verde e cinza de cada capim onde o Zuri se mostrou o mais eficiente e o Quênia, ambas espécies de Panicum maximum, demonstrou-se menos eficiente. Foi calculado um único valor para água azul, uma vez que o gado utilizado no experimento foi em todas as forrageiras, e resultou em de 14L kg-1 de leite. O valor médio da demanda hídrica entre os três capins foi de 1,393 m³ kg-1 de leite, o que é 11,6% maior do que a média mundial. Ressalta-se que a água verde variou entre 96% do valor total da demanda hídrica, 3% foi o percentual de água cinza, enquanto apenas 1% é água azul, indicando que a pecuária extensiva impacta menos do que outros sistemas que precisam de irrigação. A pegada hídrica se mostrou uma ferramenta relevante e adequada para quantificações de demandas hídricas, cumprindo o que foi proposto para o trabalho além de ser uma metodologia flexível. A perda de solo real e estimada para a Brachiaria foi de 0,038402 e 0,040086 t ha-1 semestre-1 respectivamente, sendo valores bastente próximos, porém, no caso das P. maximum, os valores estimados foram aproximadamente 2,3 vezes em comparação com o total amostrado. Esse resultado aponta para uma superestimativa da USLE em relação aos valores observados em campo. / In this research, studies were carried out in experimental plots for the determination of the water footprint, qualitative and quantitative characteristics of the runoff water and to compare the real erosion with the values estimated by the Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) in extensive dairy production. The experiment was carried out at the farm of Embrapa Gado de Leite, located in the municipality of Coronel Pacheco - MG, using crossbred cattle and meteorological data. Twelve experimental plots were used using three types of forages, Panicum maximum cv. Zuri, Brachiaria decumbens cv. Basilisk and Panicum maximum cv. BRS Quenia, with four spatial replicates for each forage. Green and gray water were calculated from each grass where Zuri was the most efficient and Quenia, both species of Panicum maximum, was less efficient. A single value for blue water was calculated, since the cattle used in the experiment was in all forages, and resulted in 14L kg-1 milk. The average value of water demand among the three weeds was 1,393 m³ kg-1 of milk, which is 11.6% higher than the world average. It is noteworthy that green water ranged from 96% of the total value of water demand, 3% was the percentage of gray water, while only 1% was blue water, indicating that extensive livestock farming impacts less than other systems that need irrigation . The water footprint proved to be a relevant and adequate tool for quantification of water demands, fulfilling what was proposed for the work besides being a flexible methodology. The real and estimated soil loss for Brachiaria was 0.038402 and 0.040086 t ha-1 semester-1 respectively, with values being close enough, however, in the case of P. maximum, the estimated values were approximately 2.3x compared to the total sampled. This result points to an overestimation of USLE in relation to the values observed in the field.

Three troublesome issues concerning residential curbside collection (RCC) and municipal solid waste (MSW) management systems in the United States motivated this research. First, reliance upon inefficient collection and scheduling procedures negatively affect RCC efficiency, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and cost. Second, the neglected impact of MSW management practices on water resources. Third, the implications of alternative fuels on the environmental and financial performance of waste collection where fuel plays a significant rule. The goal of this study was to select the best RCC program, MSW management practice, and collection fuel. For this study, field data were collected for RCC programs across the State of Florida. The garbage and recyclables generation rates were compared based on garbage collection frequency and use of dual-stream (DS) or single-stream (SS) recyclables collection system. The assessment of the collection programs was evaluated based on GHG emissions, while for the first time, the water footprint (WFP) was calculated for the most commonly used MSW management practices namely landfilling, combustion, and recycling. In comparing alternative collection fuels, two multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) tools, TOPSIS and SAW, were used to rank fuel alternatives for the waste collection industry with respect to a multi-level environmental and financial decision matrix. The results showed that SS collection systems exhibited more than a two-fold increase in recyclables generation rates, and a ~2.2-fold greater recycling efficiency compared to DS. The GHG emissions associated with the studied collection programs were estimated to be between 36 and 51 kg CO2eq per metric ton of total household waste (garbage and recyclables), depending on the garbage collection frequency, recyclables collection system (DS or SS) and recyclables compaction. When recyclables offsets were considered, the GHG emissions associated with programs using SS were estimated between -760 and -560, compared to between -270 and -210 kg CO2eq per metric ton of total waste for DS programs. In comparing the WFP of MSW management practices, the results showed that the WFP of waste landfilling can be reduced through implementing bioreactor landfilling. The WFP of electricity generated from waste combustion was less than the electricity from landfill gas. Overall, the WFP of electricity from MSW management practices was drastically less than some renewable energy sources. In comparing the WFP offsets of recyclables, the recycling of renewable commodities, e.g. paper, contributed to the highest WFP offsets compared to other commodities, mainly due to its raw material acquisition high WFPs. This suggests that recycling of renewable goods is the best management practice to reduce the WFP of MSW management. Finally, the MCDA of alternative fuel technologies revealed that diesel is still the best option, followed by hydraulic-hybrid waste collection vehicles (WCVs), then landfill gas (LFG) sourced natural gas, fossil natural gas and biodiesel. The elimination of the fueling station criterion from the financial criteria ranked LFG-sourced natural gas as the best option; suggesting that LFG sourced natural gas is the best alternative to fuel WCV when accessible. In conclusion, field data suggest that RCC system design can significantly impact recyclables generation rate and efficiency, and consequently determine environmental and economic impact of collection systems. The WFP concept was suggested as a method to systematically assess the impact of MSW management practices on water resources. A careful consideration of the WFP of MSW management practices and energy recovered from MSW management facilities is essential for the sustainable appropriation of water resources and development.