Lichens are poikilohydric and cannot control water uptake and loss, water relations could therefore impact their distribution. This study examines if morphological, anatomical, and water storage traits could explain distribution of epiphytic species in the lichen genus Usnea. Seven species from oceanic (Norway) and continental areas (Sweden) were studied. Total, internal, and external water holding capacity (WHC, mg H2O cm-2) along with relative water content (WC) were recorded by spraying the thalli with water and measuring mass after shaking and blotting. The specific thallus mass (STM, mg cm-2 - main driver of WHC) was calculated from images of wet thalli. Thickness of anatomical layers (cortex, medulla, and axis) was also measured. Pendent species had lower STM and water storage than shrubby species, most probably an adaptation to water uptake from humid air. Total, internal, and external WHC were higher in the shrubby species than in the pendent ones. The pendent species had the same internal WHC as earlier reports on Bryoria and Alectoria. External water storage decreased for all species as biomass increased. The ratio between total and internal water was twice as high as reported in foliose lichens. Variation in branch diameter was much higher in shrubby than in pendent species. The interspecific differences in water storage reflect regional differences in water sources – oceanic species had higher water storage than pendent continental species, but lower than the shrubby U. hirta. I conclude that both internal and external water storage help to explain distribution of Usnea in Norway and Sweden.

Sasol biological sludge, coal fine and gasification ash were the three waste streams involved in this study. The main concern is that on their own they are not suitable as growth mediums, the ash is alkaline (pH>12) with high salinity (total dissolved solids of 8000 mg ℓ-1). Fine ash is microporous (particle size diameter <250 μm) and forms cemented layers that can restrict root growth while, gasification ash in macroporous (most particle size diameter ranged between 1 and 75 mm) and has a low water holding capacity. Sludge is unstable and can inhibit gaseous exchange. However, these wastes potentially, have physical, biological and chemical attributes that make them suitable as hospitable growth medium. Sludge can promote micro-fauna activity and, provide plant available nitrogen (N) as well as phosphorus (P) the ash is poor in. On a short term bases and in the long term it can also contribute to cation exchange capacity (CEC). Fine ash can increase water holding capacity and gasification ash can improve gaseous exchange. It was hypothesized that if the ash was treated with sludge, pH will be reduced to between 5.5 and 8, and weathering will reduce salinity to less than 400 mSm-1, increase CEC and increase plant available N and P. Therefore, the main purpose of this laboratory column study was to establish combinations of these waste streams that hold promise as plant growth media, based on various chemical and physical criteria link to hospitable plant growth media, as well as the influence of weathering on the release of essential plant nutrients. A total of 51 mixtures (each weighing 2.6 kg) were formulated based on wet mass basis and divided into 6 groups based on sludge content (0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50%) and packed into columns, subjected to wetting and drying for 1 year (10 wetting and drying cycles) by passing through deionized water equivalent to the pore volume and allowing the mixtures to dry in between. The leachates were analysed using Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICP-OES) and Kjeldahl procedures (for N release). Total elemental analysis was done using X-ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy (XRF) and acid digestion method. Particle size distribution was done using the sieve method. Cation exchange properties were assessed using ammonium acetate (NH4OAc), lithium chloride (LiCl) and potassium chloride (KCl) methods. Results indicated that sludge was critical for these mixtures,at a minimal content of 10% it increased the water holding capacity of the mixtures. In the mineralization of inorganic N at a lower limit of 20% sludgeenabled the production of plant available NH4+ and NO3- and less NO2-. Increasing sludge to 50% further reduced the production of NO2- in the mixtures. In terms of elemental release, mixtures without sludge were dominated by Na and the order of abundance was as follows; Na>K>Ca>Mg>P on mmol kg-1 but the introduction of sludge at a lower content limit of 10% changed the abundance of the elements as follows; P>Mg>Ca>Na>K on mmol kg-1. Sludge content as low as 10% reduced the pH of the mixtures to between 7.6 and 8 and EC to less than 400 mSm-1. However, increasing sludge to 50% increased the leachate EC dramatically and kept the EC high (415 mSm-1) till the end. Introduction of sludge at a low limit of 10 % content increased the CEC above 8 cmolc kg-1. The effects of fine ash on the water holding capacity of the mixtures were seen at the 10 % level, for example, mixture 13 with 10% fine ash had 0.3 mg kg-1, while mixture 12 with 0% fine ash had 0.27 mg kg-1. Increasing fine ash content above 40% increased pozzalanic properties, pH (>8), EC (>400 mSm-1), Na release and reduced CEC.Gasification ash is the biggest waste stream and utilizing these wastes as growth media will mean that it realistically will always dominate these mixtures. This study showed that on its own it will be a challenging environment. However, the amendent with sludge and fine ash resulted in some chemically and physically favourable changes in these media. It can be concluded that the main objective has been achieved and bio assay evalution of theses mixtures is recommended Copyright / Dissertation (MSc(Agric))--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Plant Production and Soil Science / unrestricted

Wooden breast (WB) is a Pectoralis major muscle myopathy in broilers that has negatively impacted breast meat quality and the poultry industry for over five years. The objective of this research was to evaluate quality differences in normal (NOR), moderately woody (MOD), and severely woody (SEV) broiler breast meat marinated with water (control), water, sodium phosphate, and salt (traditional) and water, potassium carbonate and salt (clean label). The second objective of this research was to evaluate quality differences in chicken patties made with varying percentages of NOR to SEV breast meat (0% NOR, 33% NOR, 67% NOR, 100% NOR) and marinades using salt (control), salt and sodium phosphate (traditional), or salt and potassium carbonate (clean label) as functional ingredients in patties. Overall marination did not significantly improve eating quality of WB meat, and no more than 33% of SEV WB meat should be added to any comminuted chicken product.

Recently, there has been an increase in the incidence of pale soft and exudative poultry meat. Pale, soft, and exudative (PSE) meat is caused by a decline in pH early postmortem while carcass temperatures are still high. This decrease in pH leads to protein denaturation attributing to the pale color and poor water holding capacity (WHC) that is characteristic of this lesser quality meat. Pale, soft, and exudative meat has economic implications for processors with losses ranging between $2-4 million each year. Marination with salt and phosphates has been shown to improve protein functionality, thereby reducing lost meat yield and improving meat color, WHC, and texture. However, there are few studies relating marination with phosphates to improvements in PSE meat. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to determine if color, WHC, and texture improvements could be obtained in PSE meat via marination with various phosphate and NaCl treatments without altering the quality and oxidative stability of normal or PSE meat. In Experiment 1, 12 phosphates were evaluated for improvements in pH, color, and WHC of PSE meat. From these, five phosphates were chosen based on pH, color, and WHC improvements for Experiment 2. The marinades used in Experiment 2 increased the pH, decreased the L* values of the pale fillets, and improved water holding capacity. Thiobarbituric acid-reactive substances, sensory, and microbial analysis studies concluded that marination with high pH phosphates can reduce the undesirable characteristics of PSE meat without increasing the development of oxidation, altering flavor, or reducing shelf-life. / Master of Science

“All countries are vulnerable to climate change and instability in weather patterns but the poorest countries and the poorest people within them are most vulnerable, being the most exposed and having the least means to adapt” (IMF and World Bank Development Committee, 2006). African cities, as other cities around the world, are prone to flooding within in urban areas. The increased flooding from climate change, could have seriously destabilising effects for Africa (Commission for Africa, 2005). Climate records shows that most of Africa warmed by approximately 0.7°C during the twentieth century (IPCC Working Group II, 2001). Future changes in rainfall will depend greatly on the influence of global warming. In addition, a United Nations World Water Report states that in the beginning of the twenty-first century, the Earth with its diverse and abundant life forms (including over six billion humans), is facing a serious water crisis. Water needs to be conserved in any way possible. (United Nations World Water Report, n.d.). This study aims to explore the role in which floodingin urban landscapes can be addressed, but simultaneously stored for future use. It argues that the negative element of flooding can rather be used, i.e the water could be conserved and used in the build environment, rather than inhibiting social, economic and ecological factors. The pilot project in this stage can at the same time, serve as an urban generator. An innovative solution (urban water park) is analysed and tested and serves as a possible outcome to address flooding problems within an African city (Maputo, Mozambique). Afrika, 2005). / Stede in Afrika, soos in ander in die wêreld, is onderhewe aan vloedrampe in stedelike areas. Die toenemende vloedegevalle, tesame met die impak van klimaatsverandering, kan uiterse destabilisering vir die Afrika kontinent inhou (Kommissie vir Afrika, 2005). ‘n Klimaatsrekord, bewys dat gedurende die twintigste eeu, ‘n groot deel van Afrika onderworpe was aan ‘n hittetoename van omtrent 0.7°C (IPPC Werksgroep II, 2011). Toekomstige veranderinge in reënval sal grootliks afhang van die invloed van aardsverwarming. Ter aanvoering van die argument word daar adisioneel toegevoeg dat die Verenigde Nasies se Wêreldswater Verslag die volgende aanlas: dat die aarde, met sy diverse en verskeidenheid van lewende wesens (wat oor die ses miljioen mense insluit), aan die begin van die een-en-twintigste eeu onderworpe sal wees aan ernstige watertekorte. Water moet dus in alle moontlike maniere gespaar word (Verenigde Nasies se Wêreldswater Verslag, geen datum). Die studie beoog om die rol van vloede in die verstedelike landskap te ondersoek en aan te spreek tot voordeel van die bouomgewing. Die ontwerp poog om die huidige negatiewe element van water eerder te bewaar en die gebruik daarvan te aan te moedig. Hierdeur word word die omswaai in sosiale, ekonomiese en ekologiese faktore inplekgestel. ‘n Projek sal dan terselfdertyd as verstedelike genereerder dien. ‘n Innoverende oplossing, ‘n stedelike water park, is geondersoek en getoets. Hierdie sal moontlik as die oplossing dien van die huidige vloedprobleme in hierdie Afrika stad (Maputo, Mosambiek). / Dissertation (ML(Prof))--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Architecture / unrestricted

O presente trabalho foi desenvolvido com objetivo de analisar a classificação climática segundo Köppen e Thornthwaite (comparando os valores de armazenamento de água no solo, evapotranspiração real, deficiência hídrica e excedente hídrico para realização do balanço hídrico cíclico mensal), e de propor uma caracterização edafoclimática referente à região mesoclimática de Santa Maria, RS utilizando uma série histórica de 35 anos (de 1969 a 2003). De acordo com os resultados, as seguintes conclusões podem ser apresentadas: (a) a classificação climática segundo Thornthwaite ou Köppen pode ser feita com base na classe mais freqüente ou utilizando os valores médios de temperatura e de chuva e a capacidade de água disponível de 50 mm; (b) classificação climática segundo Thornthwaite: A r B\'3 a\' (classe mais freqüente) ou B4 r B\'3 a\' (utilizando os valores médios de temperatura e de chuva); (c) classificação climática segundo Köppen: Cfga (classe mais freqüente) ou Cwga (utilizando os valores médios de temperatura e de chuva); e (d) A29/42S,53/42W,95,35,11,7,27,2,20,3,5,5,471,1/5,1235,2672,1802,20,953,887,915,50: caracterização edafoclimática proposta. Isso significa que a evapotranspiração real é pelo menos 90% da evapotranspiração potencial de referência (classe A de disponibilidade hídrica), a localização geográfica é de 29o42\' (latitude sul), 53o42\' (longitude oeste) e altitude de 95 m, e que a série histórica apresenta 35 anos, sendo as temperaturas mínima e máxima mensal de 11oC (julho) e 27oC (fevereiro), a temperatura média anual de 20oC, respectivamente, com coeficiente de variação de 3%, e as chuvas mínima e máxima mensal de 5 mm (maio) e 471 mm (janeiro/maio), as chuvas mínima, máxima e média anual de 1235 mm, 2672 mm e 1802 mm, respectivamente, com coeficiente de variação de 20%, valores médios anuais de evapotranspiração potencial de referência, evapotranspiração real e excedente hídrico de 953 mm, 887 mm e 915 mm, respectivamente, adotando uma capacidade de água disponível de 50 mm. / The present work was developed with the purpose of analyzing the climatic classification by Köppen and Thornthwaite (comparing the values of soil water holding, actual evapotranspiration, water deficit and water excess for cyclic water balance using monthly data), and of proposing an edaphoclimatic characterization related to the mesoclimatic region of Santa Maria, State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, using a historical series of 35 years (from 1969 to 2003). According to the results, the following conclusions can be presented: (a) the climatic classification by Thornthwaite or Köppen can be done based on the modal class or using the mean values of air temperature and rainfall and the soil water holding capacity of 50 mm; (b) the climatic classification by Thornthwaite is A r B\'3 a\' (modal class) or B4 r B\'3 a\' (using the mean values of temperature and rainfall); (c) the climatic classification by Köppen is Cfga (modal class) or Cwga (using the mean values of temperature and rainfall); and (d) A29/42S,53/42W,95,35,11,7,27,2,20,3,5,5,471,1/5,1235,2672,1802,20,953,887,915,50 is the proposed edaphoclimatic characterization. It means the actual evapotranspiration is at least 90% of the potential evapotranspiration (class A of soil water availability), the geographic localization is 29o42\' South (latitude), 53o42\' West (longitude) and altitude of 95 m, using a historic series of 35 years, being monthly minimum and maximum air temperatures of 11oC (July) and 27oC (February), the annual mean air temperature of 20oC, with coefficient of variation of 3%, and the monthly minimum and maximum rainfall of 5 mm (May) and 471 mm (January/May), the annual minimum, maximum and mean rainfall of 1235 mm, 2672 mm and 1802 mm, respectively, with coefficient of variation of 20%, and the annual mean values of potential evapotranspiration, actual evapotranspiration and water excess of 953 mm, 887 mm and 915 mm, respectively, using a soil water holding capacity of 50 mm.

O presente trabalho foi desenvolvido com objetivo de analisar a classificação climática segundo Köppen e Thornthwaite (comparando os valores de armazenamento de água no solo, evapotranspiração real, deficiência hídrica e excedente hídrico para realização do balanço hídrico cíclico mensal), e de propor uma caracterização edafoclimática referente à região mesoclimática de Santa Maria, RS utilizando uma série histórica de 35 anos (de 1969 a 2003). De acordo com os resultados, as seguintes conclusões podem ser apresentadas: (a) a classificação climática segundo Thornthwaite ou Köppen pode ser feita com base na classe mais freqüente ou utilizando os valores médios de temperatura e de chuva e a capacidade de água disponível de 50 mm; (b) classificação climática segundo Thornthwaite: A r B\'3 a\' (classe mais freqüente) ou B4 r B\'3 a\' (utilizando os valores médios de temperatura e de chuva); (c) classificação climática segundo Köppen: Cfga (classe mais freqüente) ou Cwga (utilizando os valores médios de temperatura e de chuva); e (d) A29/42S,53/42W,95,35,11,7,27,2,20,3,5,5,471,1/5,1235,2672,1802,20,953,887,915,50: caracterização edafoclimática proposta. Isso significa que a evapotranspiração real é pelo menos 90% da evapotranspiração potencial de referência (classe A de disponibilidade hídrica), a localização geográfica é de 29o42\' (latitude sul), 53o42\' (longitude oeste) e altitude de 95 m, e que a série histórica apresenta 35 anos, sendo as temperaturas mínima e máxima mensal de 11oC (julho) e 27oC (fevereiro), a temperatura média anual de 20oC, respectivamente, com coeficiente de variação de 3%, e as chuvas mínima e máxima mensal de 5 mm (maio) e 471 mm (janeiro/maio), as chuvas mínima, máxima e média anual de 1235 mm, 2672 mm e 1802 mm, respectivamente, com coeficiente de variação de 20%, valores médios anuais de evapotranspiração potencial de referência, evapotranspiração real e excedente hídrico de 953 mm, 887 mm e 915 mm, respectivamente, adotando uma capacidade de água disponível de 50 mm. / The present work was developed with the purpose of analyzing the climatic classification by Köppen and Thornthwaite (comparing the values of soil water holding, actual evapotranspiration, water deficit and water excess for cyclic water balance using monthly data), and of proposing an edaphoclimatic characterization related to the mesoclimatic region of Santa Maria, State of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil, using a historical series of 35 years (from 1969 to 2003). According to the results, the following conclusions can be presented: (a) the climatic classification by Thornthwaite or Köppen can be done based on the modal class or using the mean values of air temperature and rainfall and the soil water holding capacity of 50 mm; (b) the climatic classification by Thornthwaite is A r B\'3 a\' (modal class) or B4 r B\'3 a\' (using the mean values of temperature and rainfall); (c) the climatic classification by Köppen is Cfga (modal class) or Cwga (using the mean values of temperature and rainfall); and (d) A29/42S,53/42W,95,35,11,7,27,2,20,3,5,5,471,1/5,1235,2672,1802,20,953,887,915,50 is the proposed edaphoclimatic characterization. It means the actual evapotranspiration is at least 90% of the potential evapotranspiration (class A of soil water availability), the geographic localization is 29o42\' South (latitude), 53o42\' West (longitude) and altitude of 95 m, using a historic series of 35 years, being monthly minimum and maximum air temperatures of 11oC (July) and 27oC (February), the annual mean air temperature of 20oC, with coefficient of variation of 3%, and the monthly minimum and maximum rainfall of 5 mm (May) and 471 mm (January/May), the annual minimum, maximum and mean rainfall of 1235 mm, 2672 mm and 1802 mm, respectively, with coefficient of variation of 20%, and the annual mean values of potential evapotranspiration, actual evapotranspiration and water excess of 953 mm, 887 mm and 915 mm, respectively, using a soil water holding capacity of 50 mm.

The main objectives of this research were to examine effects of protein modification (protein cleavage and crosslinking) on turkey meat gelation and to evaluate textural properties and water holding capacity of meat gels prepared from normal and PSE (pale, soft, exudative) turkey breast meat.<p>First, the effect of protein degradation on turkey breast meat gelation was studied. To create different extent of proteolysis in the meat, á-chymotrypsin (EC 3.4.21.1) was added to normal and PSE meat batters at 0, 2.5, 5 and 10 ppm levels. Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) of cooked meat gels showed progressive protein hydrolysis with increasing enzyme level. Texture profile analysis and torsional analysis of the cooked meat gels showed an incremental deterioration in texture with increasing enzyme level. This inferior texture caused by proteolysis was similar to that observed in the gels made from PSE turkey meat alone. Pearson correlation coefficients indicated gel textural properties and expressible moisture were highly correlated to the degree of proteolysis, especially to that of myosin heavy chain (p < 0.001).<p>The second study focused on modifying protein size to improve meat gelation, especially PSE meat gelation. Transglutaminase (TGase, EC 2.3.2.13) was chosen due to its ability to catalyze crosslinking of proteins. Pea protein isolate, an alternative to soy protein, was also evaluated as a meat protein extender. Textural profile and torsional gelometry analyses of the cooked meat gels showed TGase alone significantly (p < 0.05) increased gel texture, especially for those made from PSE meat. However, cook yield of the meat gels was compromised possibly due to steric effects. Addition of pea protein isolate alone improved cook yield and gel texture, especially for the gels made from PSE meat. The combination of TGase and pea protein produced the strongest meat gels, while maintaining a similar cook yield to the control. SDS-PAGE showed the disappearance of several protein bands contributed from the meat or pea protein with TGase addition, indicating that these likely were crosslinked and too large to enter the gel. Dynamic rheological analysis revealed TGase altered the viscoelastic properties of the meat or meat-pea protein mixtures and produced more elastic gels on cooling.<p>This research indicated proteolysis had a dramatic impact on textural properties of turkey breast meat gels. Crosslinking of proteins catalyzed by TGase significantly improved gel texture, especially for the gels made from PSE meat. However, TGase-assisted crosslinking of proteins resulted in greater cooking losses unless an extender/adjunct such as pea protein was added.

The main objectives of this research were to examine effects of protein modification (protein cleavage and crosslinking) on turkey meat gelation and to evaluate textural properties and water holding capacity of meat gels prepared from normal and PSE (pale, soft, exudative) turkey breast meat.<p>First, the effect of protein degradation on turkey breast meat gelation was studied. To create different extent of proteolysis in the meat, á-chymotrypsin (EC 3.4.21.1) was added to normal and PSE meat batters at 0, 2.5, 5 and 10 ppm levels. Sodium dodecyl sulphate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) of cooked meat gels showed progressive protein hydrolysis with increasing enzyme level. Texture profile analysis and torsional analysis of the cooked meat gels showed an incremental deterioration in texture with increasing enzyme level. This inferior texture caused by proteolysis was similar to that observed in the gels made from PSE turkey meat alone. Pearson correlation coefficients indicated gel textural properties and expressible moisture were highly correlated to the degree of proteolysis, especially to that of myosin heavy chain (p < 0.001).<p>The second study focused on modifying protein size to improve meat gelation, especially PSE meat gelation. Transglutaminase (TGase, EC 2.3.2.13) was chosen due to its ability to catalyze crosslinking of proteins. Pea protein isolate, an alternative to soy protein, was also evaluated as a meat protein extender. Textural profile and torsional gelometry analyses of the cooked meat gels showed TGase alone significantly (p < 0.05) increased gel texture, especially for those made from PSE meat. However, cook yield of the meat gels was compromised possibly due to steric effects. Addition of pea protein isolate alone improved cook yield and gel texture, especially for the gels made from PSE meat. The combination of TGase and pea protein produced the strongest meat gels, while maintaining a similar cook yield to the control. SDS-PAGE showed the disappearance of several protein bands contributed from the meat or pea protein with TGase addition, indicating that these likely were crosslinked and too large to enter the gel. Dynamic rheological analysis revealed TGase altered the viscoelastic properties of the meat or meat-pea protein mixtures and produced more elastic gels on cooling.<p>This research indicated proteolysis had a dramatic impact on textural properties of turkey breast meat gels. Crosslinking of proteins catalyzed by TGase significantly improved gel texture, especially for the gels made from PSE meat. However, TGase-assisted crosslinking of proteins resulted in greater cooking losses unless an extender/adjunct such as pea protein was added.

The aim with this study was to develop a method to estimate total area of hair lichens and to compare morphological traits and water storage in them. Hair lichens are an important component of the epiphytic flora in boreal forests. Their growth is primarily regulated by available water, and light when hydrated. Lichens have no active mechanism to regulate their water content and their water holding capacity (WHC, mg H2O/cm2) is thus an important factor for how long they remain wet and metabolically active. In this study, the water uptake and loss in five hair lichens (Alectoria sarmentosa, three Bryoria spp. and Usnea dasypoga) were compared. Their area were estimated by combining photography, scanning and a computer programme that estimates the area of objects. Total area overlap of individual branches was calculated for each species, to estimate total area of the lichen. WHC and specific thallus mass (STM) (mg DM/cm2) of the lichens were calculated. Bryoria spp. had a significantly lower STM compared to U. dasypoga and A. sarmentosa, due to its thinner branches and higher branch density. Bryoria also had a lower WHC compared to A. sarmentosa, promoting a rapid uptake and loss of water. All species had a significant relationship between STM and WHC, above a 1:1 line for all species except U. dasypoga. The lower relationship in U. dasypoga is explained by its less developed branching in combination with its thick branches.