Este trabalho apresenta uma metodologia experimental para investigar a relação entre taxas de desgaste abrasivo e dureza. Investigam-se os regimes moderado e severo de desgaste abrasivo em função da razão entre a dureza do abrasivo (HA) e a dureza do material desgastado (H). Foram realizados ensaios pino contra lixa, utilizando vidro como abrasivo em dois tamanhos, grana #80 e grana #240, e pinos com 3 mm de diâmetro sob força de 20 N. Os materiais ensaiados foram os aços AISI 1006 e AISI 52100, este último em diferentes condições metalúrgicas, e um ferro fundido branco de alto cromo, de composição eutética e matriz perlítica. Três tipos de resposta do sistema tribológico foram utilizadas para avaliar os regimes de desgaste: perda de massa, coeficiente de atrito e força de penetração do abrasivo. Determinaram-se as perdas de massa ao longo dos ensaios; o coeficiente de atrito medido por meio de célula de carga e a força de penetração com o uso de ensaios instrumentados de dureza estimando-se a profundidade máxima de penetração com base no parâmetro Rz. A partir das medidas de dureza, foi utilizado um parâmetro para incorporar os efeitos do comportamento elasto-plástico dos materiais, que considera a morfologia de impressão de dureza. Com este parâmetro, foi possível obter uma dureza denominada \"verdadeira\", que incorpora os efeitos de formação de bordas ou retração dos materiais. Verificou-se que os valores de resistência ao desgaste relativa não dependem do tamanho do abrasivo, mas que os valores de coeficiente de atrito dependem, sob regime severo de desgaste. Por sua vez, no regime moderado, os valores de coeficiente de atrito são independentes do tamanho do abrasivo. / This work presents an experimental methodology to investigate the relationship between abrasive wear rates and hardness. The mild and severe abrasive wear regimes are investigated in relation to the abrasive hardness-to-worn material hardness ratio (HA/H). Pin-against-paper tests were performed, using glass as abrasive material in two grain sizes, grit #80 and grit #240, and 3-mm diameter pins under 20 N of applied load. The tested materials were AISI 1006 e AISI 52100 steels, the last one in different metallurgical conditions, and a high-chromium white cast iron, with eutetic composition and pearlitic matrix. Three kinds of tribological system responses were used to evaluate the wear regimes: mass loss, friction coefficient and load of penetration of abrasive. Mass losses were determined along testing time; friction coefficient was determined by means of load cell and the load of penetration using instrumented hardness test, selecting the maximum depth penetration based on the Rz roughness parameter. From hardness measurements, a parameter was used to incorporate the elastic-plastic behavior of materials, which consider the indentation hardness morphology. Using this parameter, it was possible to obtain a kind of hardness called \"true\", which incorporate the pilling-up and sinking-in effects. It has been demonstrated that the relative abrasive resistance is not dependent of the abrasive particle size, but the friction coefficient values change, under severe wear regime. On the other hand, under mild regime, the friction coefficient values are independent of the abrasive particle size.

A indústria automotiva exige produtos que trabalhem em condições extremas. O desenvolvimento de componentes é uma ação de aperfeiçoar os motores de combustão interna para que atinjam a vida requerida com níveis de desgaste aceitáveis, respeitando os limites legais de operação, como por exemplo, valores de emissões de poluentes. Diante dessas exigências, se faz necessário estudar componentes considerados críticos que conhecidamente influenciam no desempenho do motor. A tribologia do par válvula e sede de válvula de admissão é um importante conjunto que se deve ter atenção quanto ao seu desgaste, visto que pode influenciar na degradação do motor quanto aos parâmetros de emissões de poluentes e requisitos operacionais de manutenção e de vida do produto. O objetivo foi avaliar o comportamento do par tribológico, válvula e sede de válvula de admissão, submetidos a ensaios em dinamômetro e veiculares (condições reais de operação), quanto ao nível e tipo de desgaste ocorrido no par. Os resultados obtidos foram correlacionados com os requisitos de desempenho legais e operacionais de um motor ciclo diesel, como também foi realizada a caracterização do tipo de desgaste ocorrido no par tribológico e comparada com a literatura específica. Com base nos resultados, concluiu-se que ocorreu uma excelente compatibilidade entre a válvula e a sede da válvula de admissão; o nível de desgaste não prejudicou o desempenho do motor e as emissões de poluentes; o par tribológico atendeu aos requisitos de trabalho extremos, como operação em altas temperaturas e pressão de combustão com baixas taxas de desgaste; e os tipos de desgastes observados foram classificados como desgaste adesivo e sinais de deformação plástica. / Automotive industry demands products that work under extreme conditions. The development of components for internal combustion engines is an action to improve this product, so that it reaches the required life with acceptable levels of wear and respecting the legal operating limits, such as values of emission pollutants. In view of these requirements, it is necessary to study components considered critical, which are known to influence the performance of the engine. So within this universe the tribology of the intake valve and valve seat insert is an important set, that must receive attention to its wear and consequently its influence to the engine degradation in the parameters of emission pollutants and performance related to the operational maintenance requirements and life of the product. The aim of this work is to evaluate the behavior of the tribological intake pair, valve and valve seat insert, submitted to dynamometer and vehicular tests (real operating conditions), regarding the level and type of wear occurred in the pair. The results were compared with legal and operational performance requirements of a diesel cycle engine, as well as the characterization of the wear type occurred in the tribological pair, with the related literature. Based on the results it was concluded that there was excellent compatibility between the valve and the valve seat material; the wear level did not impar the engine performance and emissions of pollutants; the tribological pair meeting extreme work requirements, such as high temperature operation and combustion pressure while maintaining low wear rates. The wear types observed were classified as adhesive wear and slight signs of shear strain wear.

O objetivo neste trabalho foi avaliar a influência da variação do tempo de fotopolimerização para diferentes cores (I, B1, B3 e C4) de uma resina composta (FiltekTM Z250, da 3M ESPE), sobre a taxa de desgaste abrasivo através do método do disco retificado. Cada espécime de resina composta fotopolimerizada estava contido numa cavidade semicircular localizada na periferia de um disco constituído por polimetilmetacrilato (PMMA), denominado disco estático, sendo que a superfície curva da resina no disco sofria desgaste por um rebolo de porcelana, denominado tecnicamente de disco dinâmico, sob carga padronizada e velocidade controlada, criando no espécime uma cavidade de aspecto semicircular. O deslocamento vertical do disco estático, ao ser desgastado, era detectado por um palpador, o qual transferia estes dados a um computador e criava os arquivos de desgaste, em função do tempo. Os dados obtidos foram tratados estatisticamente. Pôde-se concluir que 1) a resistência à abrasão do PMMA foi a maior de todas e 2) a resina de cor C4, a mais resistente de todas. / The aim at this study was estimate the influence of light-curing time variation of different colors (I, B1, B3 and C4) of composite resin (FiltekTM Z250, 3M ESPE), upon abrasive wear through the retified disc method. The porcelain existent in the named dynamic disc promoted a wear of each resin specimen located in the polimethylmetacrylate (PMMA) static disc, under a standardized charge and with controlled velocity. Vertical displacement of static disc was detected by a sensor that send data to a computer where wear arquives were plotted in function of time. After data statistical analysis, it could be concluded that: 1) PMMA resistance was greater than anyone of resins and 2) C4 was more resistant than all the other colors.

During the use phase of products, a series of obsolescing factors contribute to why a product is disposed of. Currently the visual state of a product is considered primarily in terms of aesthetic obsolescence which is synonymous with influential factors such as changes in fashion or personal preferences in style. The physical condition of a product is not commonly understood within the context of product replacement and the physical changes due to use are not understood fully. The research contributes to and provides original empirical research findings for the current literature on product lifetime extension, material semantics, the circular economy, emotionally durable design and material culture. Through an initial exploratory study (Photographic Analysis (PA) Study) of previously unexplained types of wear and damage that occur on portable electronic devices a taxonomy of damage (TOD) was established which provided the nomenclature for further studies. The second study (Retrospective Assessment (RA) Study) established the attitudes to wear based on the wear type, location, material and the stage during ownership that the wear occurred at. The RA Study highlighted the differences in the attitudinal responses to differing types of wear and damage and identified the differences in the temporal assessments of wear and damage. A third study (Real Time Assessment (RTA) Study) aimed to confirm or repudiate the findings found in the RA Study. The focus during the study was attitudes to the wear and damage in relation to the differences in materials, the location of the wear and the type of wear and damage was also looked at and led to a fuller understanding of how products and materials are perceived during the use phase; a stage of the product lifetime that is not currently well understood in terms of users aesthetic or cosmetic sensibilities. The final study (Semantic Perception of Materials (SPM) Study) focused on the visual and tactile perceptions of materials. The study established attitudinal perceptions of wear and damage of materials with a quantitative research methodology which has produced a better understanding of material semantics within the context of electronic objects. Through the four studies, discussion topics arose and major findings of the doctoral study were drawn out and seen to be interesting enough for further research and study. These discussions include the importance of including cosmetic obsolescence into the lexicon of product obsolescence and product lifetime extension literature, the differences in the perceptions of materials when they are within the context of a product or being assessed as samples, how differing product contexts affect user perceptions of wear and damage on materials and the potential inclusion of a material wear index that could inform the material selection process that goes further than the technical aspects outlined in current material selection tools and literature.

During the past decades there has been an increase in the use of geosynthetics in construction due to their versatility in providing a wide array of functions such as reinforcement, containment, separation, filtration and drainage. Often, geosynthetics are used in conjunction with other geosynthetics to accomplish these functions. However, geosynthetics create possible planes of weakness which can lead to failures. Textured geomembranes are widely used within landfill and mining industries due to their containment and shear strength properties, however, there are subjected to a wide array of loads and environments which are potentially hazardous, as such is of utmost importance to retain their integrity in order to avoid ecological disasters. The challenge is to understand how geomembranes resist damage, wear and which of these factors control the development of wear on textured geomembranes. Digital imaging techniques have been used in order to develop a protocol that describes the quantification of wear on textured structured geomembranes. Direct shear tests were performed to induce wear on the geomembrane textures (asperities) to analyse the wear mechanisms and study the factors that induce wear on the asperities. The research showed that normal stress and shear displacement have a major role in the development of wear on interfaces. However, the geometrical characteristics of the geomembrane asperities control the amount of wear the geomembrane can sustain without significant shear strength loss. These outcomes help to better understand the behaviour of interfaces which have as component geomembranes, leading to more robust designs. This study also proposed new asperity texture shapes by using Rapid Prototyping (RP) techniques, such as Selective Laser Sintering and Fused Filament Fabrication. Using RP techniques to create new textures for the geomembrane, could allow the creation of textures which have increased shear strength thresholds and better withstand wear, allowing for more advanced and economical designs.

Over the last two decades or so, metal matrix composites (MMCs) have been drawing the attention of the industry due to their potentials in fulfilling demands for high performance industrial materials, products and advanced engineering applications. On the other hand, the high precision machining is becoming one of the most effective methods for enabling these difficult-to-machine composites to be applied particularly in precision engineering. Therefore, in-depth scientific understanding of MMC precision machining is essential and much needed so as to fulfil the gap between fundamental issues in precision machining of MMCs and their industrial scale applications. This thesis focuses on development of a multiscale multiphysics based approach to investigating the machinability of particulate MMCs and the machining process optimisation. In order to investigate the surface generation in relation to the process variables, this PhD study covers the key fundamental issues including chip formation process, dynamic cutting force, cutting temperature partition and tool wear by means of combining modelling, simulation and experimental study. The chip formation mechanisms and the minimum chip thickness in precision machining of SiCp/Al and B4Cp/Al MMCs by using PCD tools are investigated through a holistic approach. Minimum chip thickness (MCT) value is firstly identified based on the modified mathematical model. The certain threshold of the uncut chip thickness, i.e. chips starting to form at this chip thickness point, is then established. The chip formation process including the matrix material breakage, particles fracture, debonding, sliding or removal and their interfacial interactions are further simulated using finite element analysis (FEA). The minimum chip thickness and chip formation simulations are evaluated and validated via well-designed experimental trials on a diamond turning machine. The chips and surface profiles formed under varied process variables in periodic material removals are inspected and measured in order to obtain a better understanding on MMC chip formation mechanisms. The improved dynamic cutting force model is developed based on the micro cutting mechanics involving the size effect, undeformed chip thickness effects and the influence of cutting parameters in the micro scale. Cutting process variables, particle form, size and volume fraction at different scales are taken into account in the modelling. The cutting force multiscale modelling is proposed to have a better understanding on the MMCs cutting mechanics and to predict the cutting force accurately. The cutting forces are modelled and analysed in three cutting regimes: elastic recovery zone, ploughing zone and shearing zone. A novel instantaneous chip thickness algorithm including real chip thickness and real tool trajectory is developed by taking account of the tool runout. Well-designed cutting trials are carried out under varied process variables to evaluate and validate the force model. In order to obtain the actual cutting forces accurately, transfer function technique is employed to compensate the measured cutting forces. The cutting force model is further applied to correlate the cutting tool wear and the prediction of the machined surface generation. Multiphysics coupled thermal-mechanical-tribological model and FE analysis are developed to investigate the cutting stress, cutting temperature, tool wear and their intrinsic relationships in MMCs precision machining process. Heat generation, heat transfer and cutting temperature partition in workpiece, chips and cutting tool are simulated. A modified tool wear rate model is proposed, tool wear characteristics, wear mechanisms and dominate tool wear are further investigated against the real machining process. Cutting tool wear is monitored and assessed offline after machining experiments. The experimental study on the machined surface generation is presented covering cutting force, tool wear, tool life, surface roughness and machining efficiency. Process optimisation is explored by considering the variation of cutting parameters, cutting tool conditions and workpiece materials in order to achieve the desired outcomes and machinability.

A retificação representa o processo mais utilizado na usinagem de peças para obtenção de altos níveis de qualidade superficial, dimensional e produtividade. Uma importante etapa da retificação consiste na preparação e condicionamento do rebolo para o corte, a dressagem. Durante a dressagem, a superfície da ferramenta de corte é alterada para obtenção de arestas cortantes de acordo com as especificações desejadas. O objetivo deste trabalho é desenvolver um método para inscrição de texturas na superfície do rebolo que proporcionem melhores condições de corte durante a retificação e, também, possibilite utilizar a retificação como processo para texturização superficial de peças. O método desenvolvido consiste em alterar controladamente a profundidade de dressagem utilizando um excitador eletromecânico fixado na base do dressador de uma retificadora cilíndrica CNC. A movimentação é controlada por um software desenvolvido para sincronizar o deslocamento longitudinal do dressador com ondas senoidais enviadas ao amplificador operacional do excitador. Desta forma, o dressador proporciona inscrição de texturas no rebolo durante a dressagem. O método foi experimentalmente avaliado e sua funcionalidade foi comprovada. Texturas diversas foram inscritas na superfície do rebolo, com até 15 \'mü\'m de profundidade. Com o uso da texturização de rebolos foi possível obter redução de até 20% da potência específica de corte, sem perda representativa da qualidade final da peça (rugosidade e cilindricidade) e mantendo a vida da ferramenta de corte, em comparação com retificação convencional. Em complemento, o método possibilitou criação de diversos padrões de texturas nas superfícies de peças retificadas, possibilitando utilizar a retificação como um processo de usinagem para este fim. / Grinding represents the most applied machining process to achieve best combination of surface and dimentional quality, also productivity. One important stage of the grinding process is to prepare and condition the grinding wheel surface for the cutting, the dressing operation. During the dressing, wheel surface is changed to acquire cutting specification required for the operation. The objective of this work is develop a method to texturing the grinding wheel surface for better grinding performance and, also, texturing of surfaces through normal grinding cutting. The method controlled changes the dressing depth using an electro-mechanical actuator fixed to the dressing tool base of a CNC grinding machine. The displacement of the dressing tool is controlled using the developed software. It is able to synchronize the longitudinal movement with generated sine waves sent to the operational amplifier of the actuator. Through this movement and control, the dressing tool is able to texture the grinding wheel. The method was experimentally evaluated and its functionally proved. It is possible to inscribe different texturing patterns in the wheel surface, with depth up to 15 \'mü\'m. Using texturized wheels, is possible to reduce up to 20% the grinding power, without representative losses with the machined workpiece quality (roughness and roundness) and tool life, compared to regular grinding. In addition, it is possible to transfer different textures patterns to the workpiece surface while cutting, enabling grinding s a machining process to produce workpiece patterns.

Wear to mining equipment reduces operational efficiency. If wear rates can be predicted, appropriate matching of alloys to the mine' s geologic conditions can aid in improving the operational efficiency. This study addresses rock characteristics which lead to wear. Macroscopic rock tools which lead to wear include sharp edges and comers on rocks. During a rock/equipment interaction, these rock tools cause high point pressures on the surface of the equipment which leads to ductile cutting and gouging of the surface and subsequent removal of metal. Hard mineral grains, or grain tools, produce abrasion as the grains move across equipment surfaces. Grain and rock tools were analyzed for metamorphic, hydrothermally altered, plutonic, and sedimentary rocks from six mines and quarries. Grain tools were examined by petrographic analysis and Knoop microhardness: rock tools by uniaxial compressive tests, density, and rock size. Fourier analysis of rock and mineral shapes and abrasion tests were used to examine the evolution of tools. Prediction of wear rates appears most closely related to uniaxial compressive strength, Knoop microhardness, and quartz content. Uniaxial compressive strength relates to rock tool endurance; Knoop microhardness contrast between mineral grains and matrix/cement influences evolution of tools during surface interactions; quartz content relates to the abrasive capacity of a rock surface.

This bachelor’s degree project aimed to improve the wheel profile of a rail mounted trolley and determine the cause of wheel failure. The proceedings of this project where modelled after an approach for solving wear problems with an emphasis on designing for sustainability. A case study and root cause analysis (RCA) was performed and the flanged wheels were deemed insufficient for the given heavy-haul system. Possible areas of wheel profile improvement were identified and further researched with multiple literature reviews. Throughout the projects duration several limitations were introduced that reduced the concept testing to exclusively theoretical prediction models. Archard’s model was implemented to predict wear and operating time for the proposed material and wheel tread profile concepts. The wheel flange dimensions were chosen based on recommendations from wheel and rail interference handbooks among other sources. The final wheel and rail profile suggestion improved operating time by approximately 300% and wear resistance by 50% compared to its predecessor. This result was achieved by applying the same theoretical prediction model to both current and suggested profiles. The findings of this project are meant to aid SCA among others in similar cases and additionally highlight the value of product improvement from a technological, sociological, and environmental perspective.

<p>This thesis work is an evaluation of journal bearings in manual transmissions in automobiles. Today both journal- and needle bearings can be positioned into the gearboxes and in order to reduce the power loss developed by friction when a relative angular velocity arises, the right type of bearing must be chosen.</p><p>In order to succeed, this work is aimed to develop a Matlab simulation model, which should be used as a tool in the design process of manual transmissions. The program development is later supposed to be followed by real tests of journal bearings, partly to cover things that can not be covered in the model but also to confirm how well the model reflects the reality. The absence of resources resulted in no performed real test and therefore was a comparison between theoretical-  and practical results not possible.</p><p>Here the plain journal bearings in full film lubrication will have an disadvantage compared to the needle bearings regarding the power lost. To reduce the drag below the values of the needle bearings a modified journal bearing in the area of boundary lubrication with a very low coefficient of friction may be an option. But problems with wear under this condition could most certainly be devastating and must be further investigated with real tests.</p><p>Out of a efficiency point of view the most suitable bearing position is the gear in the most frequently used area. Here it is assumed to be the 4^th gear.</p><p>A suitable journal bearing design should have a small sliding surface area in order to minimize the viscous drag. To achieve low friction the boundary lubricated area could be a good idea in cases when wear is not a critical factor. To longer the useful life nitrocarburizing is recommended, which both reduces wear and lower the coefficient of friction, in cases of asperites in contact. In order to work under the full film lubricated condition, with neglected wear, the sliding area needs to be large enough to create the required oil pressure.</p>