Undergraduate honors paper--Mount Holyoke College, 2005. Program in Environmental Studies. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 129-134).

Whale-watching tourism depends upon the continued presence of cetacean species within a specific area. However, current evidence suggests that the distribution and/or abundance of cetaceans may alter in response to continued changes in sea surface temperature with global climate change (GCC). This thesis develops and applies a framework for evaluating the resilience of whale-watching tourism to these potential temperature-induced shifts in cetacean distribution. The framework identifies three key components that are likely to affect the vulnerability of an operator to climate change impacts on cetacean occurrence (and tourist numbers). These are the likelihood of observing a cetacean, the type of whale-watching trip, and the type of tourist. Together with an examination of an operator's adaptive capacity, these data provide the type of information required to make an assessment of resilience. Using Western Scotland as a case study, framework components were populated using species distribution modeling, a motivation-based segmentation of whale-watchers, an examination of tourist's attitudes to scenarios of a changing environment and a segmentation of trip activity. Finally, data on potential vulnerability were combined with investigation of an operator's adaptive capacity (using semi-structured interviews) to make an evaluation of resilience to climate change. Our results highlight four key findings: (1) operators have high inherent resilience to a variable environment in which uncertainty is accepted, (2) vulnerability to climate change is influenced by the type and number of trips offered by whale-watch operators, (3) adaptive capacity can be improved through enhanced perceptions of risk, and (4) vulnerability to climate change is not independent from vulnerability to other factors. Future research should focus on those areas where whale-watching is less diverse, more specialised and where, currently, the climate is less variable, as it is in these regions that vulnerability may be highest and, most likely, capacity to develop resilience at its lowest.

Commercial whale-watching has become an important aspect of global marine tourism. Rapid expansion during the 1990s has created a yearly US$1 billion industry, in which approximately 10 million people go whale-watching in nearly 90 countries. While the economic importance of whale-watching is well documented, there remain questions regarding ecological impacts on cetacean populations and the veracity of assumed educational benefits. These two problems call into question the label of ecotourism that is currently applied to whale-watching. Due to the knowledge gap regarding the ecological impact of whale-watching, science-based management of the activity is difficult. In some areas, whale-watching has become a vital aspect of the economy before managers have been able to participate in its development. In other areas, management has remained at arm's length, letting the industry grow without their participation. The objective of this dissertation is to critically review the current state of whale-watching management and its link to maintenance of sustainable cetacean populations. Research is mainly focussed on whale-watching in British Columbia, Canada. This dissertation is composed of three separate studies that examine different aspects of whale-watching management: 1) an analysis of global whale-watching protocols and a comparison of cetacean-human versus terrestrial wildlife-human interaction research, 2) a case study of the historical development, current state and future possibilities of whale-watching management in B.C., where the activity has occurred since the early 1980s, and 3) a human dimensions case study of whale-watchers in B.C. to assess the utility of social science research for whale-watching management. In the first study, whale-watching practices for 87 countries were examined. Sixty-one percent of countries where whale-watching exists do not, or appear to not, possess established whale-watching rules. The presence and developmental extent of whale-watching protocols is related to the number of whale-watchers, rate of increase during the 1990s, and the number of years whale-watching has existed, in a given area. The nature of existing whale-watching protocols is extremely variable. Minimum approach guidelines, the most common type of practice, show little relationship to size of the whale-watching industry, the general type of cetacean watched (large whales or dolphins), or the predominant activity of focal cetaceans (breeding, migration, feeding). The first study also compared cetacean-human and terrestrial wildlife-human research papers (n=47 for each). The cetacean-human interaction research was more narrowly focussed, made 20% more speculations, was dependant on overt behaviours observable from the surface, discussed limitations in only 7% of the studies, and did not make use of comparison to terrestrial research. Terrestrial wildlife-human interaction research made more use of physiological measurements and experimental research, which led to management recommendations in 86% of the papers. To be more effective in the future, cetacean-human interaction research needs to make more use of the technology available to measure physiological reactions and employ experimental research designs more often. In the second study, federal, provincial and whale-watching industry documents, personal interviews and participant observation, were used to create a historical record for the development of the whale-watching industry and its management in British Columbia. This historical record was then analysed, based on commons resource management theory, to identify strengths and weaknesses of current management and explore requirements for successful future management. Strengths identified were industry cooperation, self-regulation, a unified voice/forum in Southern Vancouver Island, and a foundation for more effective management. Weaknesses identified were the lack of biological purpose of whale-watching guidelines, and control of vessel behaviour. Successful whale-watching management in the future in B.C. is dependant on Fisheries and Oceans Canada entering into a co-management type regime, in which the experience and self-regulation guidelines of the existing whale-watching industry are taken into account in amendments to the Marine Mammal Regulations. In the third study, whale-watchers in British Columbia were surveyed at the three main whale-watching centres of Johnstone Strait, Tofino and Victoria (n=1617). Data was analysed for: 1) expectations, satisfactions, attitudes and demographics between whale-watching sites, 2) attitudes between pre-whale-watching and post-whale-watching trip groups, and 3) specialization in whale-watchers between sites. Johnstone Strait whale-watchers were the most satisfied, followed by Victoria, then Tofino respondents. Johnstone Strait whale-watchers possessed greater previous cetacean education and whale-watching experience, and displayed the most concern for whale management and general resource management issues, followed by Tofino, then Victoria participants. Although there were some significant differences in attitudes between pre- and post-trip groups, it was unclear whether the interpretation aboard the whale-watching vessels was responsible. Whale-watchers already displayed a high level of concern for cetacean and general resource management issues before embarking on whale-watching trips. A specialization index was developed to classify whale-watchers as Novice, Intermediate, Advance or Expert. The index revealed that 81.6% of whale-watchers were Novice or Intermediate, indicating that whale-watchers in B .C. are generalist-type whalewatchers, with little prior experience or knowledge. Johnstone Strait attracted the most Advance and Expert whale-watchers (34.9%), followed by Tofino (14.1%) and Victoria (9.4%). There is a relationship between increase in percentage of specialized whalewatchers and increase in distance from urban tourism centres. The study reveals that, due to the dominance of generalist whale-watchers in B.C., education needs to start with basic whale and marine ecology to develop a context on which to base more in-depth conservation issues. If whale-watchers are to become part of the management solution, education programs need to aim to develop a greater percentage of specialized whalewatchers. From this study, there are indications that whale-watching could provide a basis for the sustainable management of cetaceans in the future. However, more research needs to be undertaken towards the development of science-based management, and the development of education programs. In addition, management also needs to take ieto account the efforts of established self-regulated whale-watching industries. Currently, whale-watching management protocols are ad-hoc, inconsistent, and are not based in science. Minimum approach distances may not provide protection while researchers investigate the impact of vessel proximity to cetaceans; therefore minimum approach distances are pseudo-precautionary rather than precautionary. Due to the questions that remain regarding ecological impact and educational benefits, whale-watching can not currently be considered ecotourism.

Thesis (Ph. D.)--University of Washington, 2007. / Vita. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 331-339).

Thesis (Ph.D.)-- University of Adelaide, Dept. of Geographical and Environmental Studies, 2000. / Bibliography: leaves 378-402.

Thesis (M. Env. St.)--University of Adelaide, Mawson Graduate Centre for Environmental Studies, 1994. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 96-102).

Thesis (M. Sc.)--University of Hong Kong, 2000. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 79-85).

A descriptive case study approach and 34 indicators was used to examine the socio-economic impacts of whale watching tourism in the Laguna San Ignacio (LSI) World Heritage Site - located within the El Vizcaino Biosphere Reserve in Baja California Sur, Mexico. The framework measured both the socio-economic changes, and the economic viability of the local and regional operators. This approach led to a detailed understanding of the underlying, and often complex, inter-related factors that shaped the ecotourism development in LSI between 1994 and 2002. It identified strengths and weaknesses of current ecotourism development making it a valid tool for evaluating and improving these activities in any biosphere reserve. More specifically the objectives were to examine: 1. How existing ecotourism operations and their activities in the LSI have changed since 1994; 2. Whether these changes have made ecotourism a more viable socio-economic development alternative for the local communities; and 3. Which strategies may be useful in overcoming identified barriers to further socio-economic benefits both from existing and future ecotourism activities. The results strongly suggested that the benefits from ecotourism improved significantly between 1994 and 2002. Economically this was reflected in growth of visitor numbers (50%), employment (100%) and local and regional revenue approximately 70% (or 55% in real terms adjusting for inflation). Social benefits were seen in more cooperation among previous antagonistic stakeholders; a wider distribution of ecotourism benefits; some improvement in living standards and increasing local support for the Reserve. Politically, local stakeholders became more empowered through involvement in tourism related management activities. The viability of the local and regional operators also improved significantly as they became more sophisticated in their product offerings, enhanced their facilities and gained a market share of ecotourism relative to the foreign operators. These improvements were particular true for the operators that sold package tours. However, the analyses also revealed a number of barriers with the most important ones being: • Unresolved historic land use conflicts over rights to land with ecotourism possibilities; • Lack of activities diversification possibilities outside the tourism season; • Stagnating visitor numbers; • Uneven business skills among operators; • Poor marketing and promotional efforts; • Insufficient ecotourism infrastructure; • A proposed ecotourism tax; • Low profit margin of the ecotourism operators; and • Lack of funding for further investments To alleviate these threats and barriers 13 general strategies were identified. An elaboration of these resulted in 39 concrete operational strategies on how potentially to implement them.

ABSTRACT Title: A Study on the Principles for the Operation and Management of the Dolphin and Whale Watching Industry along the Eastern Coast of Taiwan Author: Yen-Ruey Kuo The dolphin and whale watching industry has become one of the most thriving tourism industries in Taiwan in recent years, and as such, a comprehensive system of operation and management is required to help secure its sustainable development. This thesis focuses on the eastern coast of Taiwan where dolphin and whale watching first developed earliest in Taiwan and where the largest portion of operators in the business is located. Based on personal interviews following carefully-designed questionnaires with local experienced operators, skippers and narrators, this thesis studies and analyzes the present conditions of local operations and management within four aspects of the development of the industry, namely marketing strategies, environmental and ecological protection, social justice and general institutional issues. It also presents suggestions concerning sustainable development in the dolphin and whale watching industry along the eastern coast of Taiwan. Finally, according to the suggestions provided by operators and managers, domestic and foreign references and/or personal observation, the thesis proposes fifteen principles for the sustainable development for the dolphin and whale watching industry. The first ever for Taiwan, these principles are believed to be invaluable in further developing the required indicators and/or guidelines for the sustainable development of the dolphin and whale watching industry in Taiwan.

Thesis (M.S.)--University of British Columbia, 1996. / Includes bibliographical references (p. 51-61). Also available in electronic format via Internet.