Teenage pregnancy is an international phenomenon with girls falling pregnant from as early as 14 years of age. In South Africa teenage pregnancies are also on the increase (Kaiser, 2000:18; Statistica SA, 2006:5;). Teenage pregnancy may have negative effects for the teenager in that it can force the teenager to drop out of school prematurely as well as shortening her educational career which might limit future career possibilities. It also predisposes both the mother and the child to health risks. Finally, teenage pregnancy also leads to family destabilisation. Within the Xhosa communities family destabilisation becomes even more severe as it is culturally and traditionally related. Traditionally, teenage pregnancy in the Xhosa communities is stigmatized. The family suffers from embarrassment and disappointment and the effects of these experiences can manifest in outrage on the part of the parents towards the pregnant teenager resulting in non-communication with her and ultimately rejection (Boult & Cunningham, 1991:36). This results in no or minimal support from the family (Nxumalo, 1997:16). The research design and method to achieve the objective of the study was a theory-generative design based on a qualitative, phenomenological, explorative, descriptive and contextual research approach utilizing the four steps of theory generation. During the step of concept analysis, which is the first step of the process of theory generation, data was collected by means of individual interviews with the pregnant Xhosa teenagers, parents and grandparents. The interviews were audio-taped and transcribed verbatim. The sample for the study was selected purposively to ensure indepth information.

AFRIKAANS: Hierdie studie het die eerste fase van die ontwikkeling van toetsmateriaal vir die evaluasie van gehoorgestremde Xhosa-sprekendes behels. In die Iig van die Suid¬Afrikaanse klimaat van kulturele- en taaldiversiteit is 'n behoefte aan kultuurgeldige toetsmateriaal binne die veld van oudiologiese rehabilitasie geïdentifiseer. Vorige navorsing het uitsluitlik op die samestelling van woordelyste gefokus. Hierteenoor verskaf sinsmateriaal hoë-vlak kontekstuele Iinguïstiese inligting. Die geldigheid van die evaluasieproses word gevolglik verhoog aangesien die individu se vermoë om residuele gehoor te gebruik, binne 'n meer verteenwoordigende luisteromgewing geëvalueer word. Gedurende die ontwerpfase van die studie is die Bamford-Kowal-Bench (BKB) Sentence Lists deur 'n moedertaalspreker van Xhosa vertaal. Twee komitees was onderskeidelik vir die grammatikale en kulturele korreksie en die oorsig oor die ouderdomstoepaslikheid van die vertaalde sinslyste verantwoordelik. Aanpassings is op grond van die komitees se aanbevelings gemaak, waarna die sinslyste aan Studie A van die ontwikkelingsfase onderwerp is. Met die oog op die evaluasie van die kulturele-, dialektiese- en ouderdomstoepaslikheid van die woordeskat, is sestig proefpersone geselekteer. Daar is gepoog om 'n balans te verkry ten opsigte van geslag, ouderdom (8-15 jaar en 18-25 jaar) en gebied (stad en platteland). Analise van variansie ontledings het geen statisties beduidende veskille tussen die onderskeie sinslyste aangedui nie. Ten einde die betroubaarheid van metings te verhoog, is die volledige stel sinne vervolgens aan 'n rekenaarprogram onderwerp met die oog op die samestelling van 'n finale stel sinslyste wat gebalanseer is ten opsigte van foneeminhoud. Tien Iyste bestaande uit tien sinne elk is uiteindelik saamgestel en aan Studie B van die ontwikkelingsfase onderwerp. Met die oog op die kontrolering van die ekwivalensie van saamgestelde sinslyste is sestien proefpersone vir hierdie Studie geselekteer. Die finale stel van tien sinslyste is teen 'n vasgestelde sein-tot-ruis verhouding aan hierdie proefpersone aangebied en response is statisties ontleed. Die Tukey Groeperings het by 'n 95% vertrouensinterval bevestig dat sinslyste 6 en 10 beduidend van die ander Iyste verskil het ten opsigte van moeilikheidsgraad. Hierdie Iyste is uit die toetsmateriaal weggelaat. Die laaste hoofstukke van die studie behels 'n kritiese evaluering van die studie asook voorstelle vir verdere navorsing met die oog op standaardisasie van hierdie materiaal. ENGLISH: This study involved the first phase of the development of evaluation material for the assessment of hearing-impaired Xhosa speakers. In light of the present South African climate of cultural and language diversity, the need for culturally valid evaluation material in the field of audiological rehabilitation, was identified. Previous research focused exclusively on the compilation of wordlists. Sentences, however, provide high level contextual linguistic information. The validity of evaluation is thus increased as a result of evaluating the individual within a more representative listening environment. During the design phase of the study, the Bamford-Kowal-Bench (BKB) Sentence Lists were translated by a mothertongue Xhosa speaker. Two committees were responsible for the grammatical and cultural correction as well as an overview of the age appropriateness of vocabulary. Based on the committees' recommendations certain adaptations were made before subjecting the material to Study A of the development phase. In order to evaluate the cultural-, dialectal and age appropriateness of the vocabulary, sixty subjects were selected. Subjects were balanced in terms of gender, age (8-15 years and 18-25 years) and geographical area (urban and rural). Statistical analysis of variance indicated no significant difference amongst the sentence lists. In order to increase the reliability of measurements, the entire set of sentences were subject to a computerized programme to compile phonemically balanced lists. Ten lists of ten sentences each were compiled and implemented in Study B of the development phase. Sixteen subjects were selected to participate in this study in order to verify the equivalency of the ten lists. The final set of ten lists was presented at a fixed signal-tonoise ratio and subjects' responses were analysed statistically. The Tukey Grouping confirmed at a 95% confidence interval, that Lists 6 and 10 were significantly different in terms of difficulty. These lists were omitted from the final material. The last chapters of the dissertation included a critical evaluation of results as well as recommendations for future research aimed at standardisation of the material. / Dissertation (MA (Communication Pathology))--University of Pretoria, 2007. / Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology / unrestricted

Bibliography: leaves 166-172. / Isihlonipho Sabafazi (the Xhosa women's language of respect) is a language in which syllables occurring in the names of menfolk are avoided by women. Thie thesis attempts to place the practice in it social context by applying both descriptive and analytical methodologies. The thesis include a literature survey and a critique on the dynamics of gender and language. The results of interviews conducted in three areas, one urban and two rural, are analysed and tabulated. A glossary of substitute words is included.

Bibliography: pages 259-274. / In this thesis I examine the way in which Xhosa speakers create humour, what forms (e.g. satire, irony, punning, parody) they favour in both oral and textual literature, and the genres in which these forms are delivered and executed. The functions of Xhosa humour, both during and after apartheid, are examined, as is its role in challenging, contesting and reaffirming traditional notions of society and culture. The particular techniques Xhosa comedians and comic writers use in order to elicit humour are explored with specific reference to the way in which the phonological complexity of this language is exploited for humorous effect. Oral literature sources include collections of praise poems, folktales and proverbs, while anecdotal humour is drawn from recent interviews conducted with domestic workers. My analysis of humour in literary texts initially focuses on the classic works of G.B. Sinxo and S.M. Burns-Ncamashe, and then goes on to refer to contemporary works such as those of P.T. Mtuze. The study on the techniques of Xhosa humour uses as its theoretical base Walter Nash's The language of humour (1985), while that on the functions of Xhosa humour owes much to the work of sociologists such as Michael Mulkay and Chris Powell and George E.C. Paton. The study reveals the fact that Xhosa oral humour is personal and playful - at times obscene - but can also be critical. In texts it explores the comedy of characters as well as the irony of socio-political realities. In both oral and textual discourses the phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics of Xhosa are exploited to create a humour which is richly patterned and finely crafted. In South Africa humour often served to liberate people from the oppressive atmosphere of apartheid. At the same time humour has always had a stabilizing role in Xhosa cultural life, providing a means of controlling deviants and misfits.

Xhosa people practise the circumcision ritual. The exciting period is during the pre- circumcision. It is also the time when Xhosa teenage boys experience various problems associated with the ritual. The main purpose of the study was to explore and describe Xhosa teenage boys' experiences of the period prior to the circumcision ritual in East London in the Eastern Cape Province. A descriptive, exploratory and descriptive qualitative research design was followed and 28 participants volunteered to participate. In-depth phenomenological focus group interviews were conducted. Data analysis revealed two themes: social pressure on teenage Xhosa boys associated with the ritual, and depression associated with the treatment of teenage Xhosa boys by their communities. The study recommends that all stakeholders be involved in the performance of the ritual. A limitation of the study was failure to include stakeholders. The researcher recommends further research to involve all stakeholders of the ritual. / Health Studies / M.A. (Public Health)

Although many cultures attach great value to young males attending traditional initiation schools, there are a number of questions that remain unanswered. Because of the secrecy that surrounds these schools, there may be many opportunities for addressing vital social issues that may not be made use of or are not known. The purpose of this study was to explore the role played by the initiation schools in educating the young men about HIV/AIDS and gender related issues in the Maluti area in the Eastern Cape from the leader’s and from the initiates’ perspectives. A comparison with non-initiates was also conducted. The researcher also aimed to explore the programs offered at the initiation schools; whether initiation schools serve as a source of knowledge pertaining to HIV/AIDS and gender related issues to the young men. The researcher conducted interviews with leaders of two different initiation schools, focus group discussions with two groups of young males that had attended two different initiation schools, and also with one group of young males that had not yet attended initiation school in the Maluti area. The study was qualitative and data was analysed using content analysis. The results reflect that both initiated and uninitiated young males had attended same workshops on gender issues offered through their schools, the only difference in knowledge and attitude is therefore based on what the initiated youth learnt from the initiation school. This knowledge reflected an understanding of equity principles in treating women. In addition, the initiated young males reflected some understanding of the equal rights and treatment of women. However there was little difference between the two groups of young males, perhaps because there was apparently not much included at initiation school. Another reason could have been because the initiates did not perceive it as one of the important issues discussed since there was little emphasis coming from the initiation school, the leaders or from the visiting speakers. / Thesis (M.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2008.

Xhosa people practise the circumcision ritual. The exciting period is during the pre- circumcision. It is also the time when Xhosa teenage boys experience various problems associated with the ritual. The main purpose of the study was to explore and describe Xhosa teenage boys' experiences of the period prior to the circumcision ritual in East London in the Eastern Cape Province. A descriptive, exploratory and descriptive qualitative research design was followed and 28 participants volunteered to participate. In-depth phenomenological focus group interviews were conducted. Data analysis revealed two themes: social pressure on teenage Xhosa boys associated with the ritual, and depression associated with the treatment of teenage Xhosa boys by their communities. The study recommends that all stakeholders be involved in the performance of the ritual. A limitation of the study was failure to include stakeholders. The researcher recommends further research to involve all stakeholders of the ritual. / Health Studies / M.A. (Public Health)

Among the AmaXhosa the death of a person is marked by a tradition called ukuzila - the equivalent of the mourning process. As a sign of spousal mourning, and to show respect, the remaining spouse has to put on a marker (be visible). However, it is mostly the woman who is under obligation to show her mourner status by wearing ‘clothes of mourning’. The discriminatory nature of the practice, especially pertaining to visibility and some of the detrimental effects on the widows’ health and safety have been documented by some researchers, but the reasons for the continuity of visibility remain largely unexplored. Taking into account the dynamic nature of ‘culture’, this research explored the discourses deployed in men and women’s constructions of ukuzila specifically focusing on spousal mourning and the continuity of widows’ visibility in spite of their resistance to it. The research used postcolonial feminism drawing on postructuralism as its theoretical lens. This theoretical lens provided useful concepts such as hybridity, visibility, surveillance and power with which to examine spousal mourning and conceptualised people’s subject positions as multiple, fluid and contingent. Furthermore, the research employed thematic and discourse analysis at its methodology. Discourse analysis was employed to identify and analyse the discourses utilised in the constructions of spousal mourning. The research was conducted through focus group discussions held with younger and older urban and rural men and women, as well as interviews held with widows and widowers and key cultural informants. Concerning the question of constructions of spousal mourning for men and women, visibility of the mourner emerged as a central and contentious issue. Some participants were of the view that one could show mourning by engaging in culturally appropriate mourning behaviour, whilst others were of the view that showing one’s mourning had to be visible by publicly displaying mourning through a marker. Another group proposed mourning “by heart”, whereby the mourners’ status could either be inferred from their behaviour, whereas others maintained that behaviour was not mandatory. Various justifications for the continued visibility of widows were advanced. These justifications included showing love and respect to the deceased husband; showing respect to the ancestors; and helping to monitor their own behaviour in order to ensure that it is in line with appropriate mourning behaviour. The continued visibility of widows was also used to regulate the widows’ sexuality. Widows were coerced to put on ‘clothes of mourning’ in order to ‘protect’ them from being approached by men for a relationship during the mourning period. The regulation of the movement of widows was also managed through visibility. Widows’ movements were restricted in order to protect the community from pollution or bad luck. For example, they were not allowed to visit places of entertainment or visit other households. Key discourses identified were the familial-‘ukwenda’, respect-‘hlonipha’, and male sexual drive (MSD) discourse. The familial - ‘ukwenda’ discourse is centred on the idea that one is ‘married to the household’, which includes the nuclear family and wider extended family including ancestors. According to the respect-‘hlonipha’ discourse, respect is due to others on the basis of their age, status, and more especially their gender. Showing respect (hlonipha) necessitates the avoidance of all forms of behaviour and utterances that could be deemed disrespectful. The MSD holds a widespread view of sexuality as a biological drive that resides within each male and it was drawn on to make sense of discontinued visibility among widowers, whilst visibility of widows continued. It is argued that it is these discourses, embedded in the ‘culture’ of the AmaXhosa and upheld by the family that sustain the discriminatory nature of the practice, especially concerning the continued visibility of widows in spite of the resistance that has been voiced.

This study was conducted on the mourning rituals of the AmaXhosa widows of the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa. The study focused on the descriptive presentation of the experiences of the AmaXhosa widows in the Buffalo City municipality of the Province. The study sought to establish the widows’ perceptions regarding the mourning rituals and to interpret their experiences within the context of contemporary cultural, religious, gender and socio-political influences. The experiences among the widows interviewed were found to have a similar context but their perceptions about the mourning rituals were different between the widows younger than 40 years and those older than 50 years. Widows from urban and rural areas of East London, Mdantsane Township and from within a 60 kilometre radius of East London were interviewed. Purposive random sampling was used to identify an equal number of either urban or rural voluntary participants for the study. Structured interviews were held with widows ranging in age from 29 to 91 years. An interpretative phenomenological analysis of the recorded discussions was conducted. The experiences of the AmaXhosa widows during the conduct of the mourning rituals are described. The key findings of the study indicated that most of the widows felt they had to go through the mourning rituals mainly to show respect for their departed husbands and so that the dignity of the family and clan was maintained. The mourning rituals seemed mostly to have negative implications for the widows such as a lack of family and financial support and being treated as social outcasts; however the rituals also seemed to help the women adjust to their new status as widows. Although the mourning rituals were embedded in the socio-cultural tradition generally followed by the AmaXhosa, religious beliefs also influenced some of the traditions by introducing changes in the way some widows conducted the mourning rituals. For example, some religions advocated for shorter periods of mourning than usual as well as wearing different types of mourning clothes from the usual black or purple dress. Overall the perceptions of the older widows aged above 50 years revealed that they had no reservations about performing the mourning rituals and quite readily and unquestioningly accepted the customs. The younger widows aged below 40 years on the other hand felt that the mourning rituals were biased against women and did not serve a useful purpose and even proposed changes to the manner in which the mourning rituals are conducted particularly the shortening of the mourning period from 12 to 6 months or less. However, they seemed to recognize the role played by the mourning ritual in lessening and possibly healing the pain and sorrow caused by their bereavement.

Thesis (MA (African Languages))--University of Stellenbosch, 2009. / The purpose of this study is to examine message production and image restoration in the narratives of isiXhosa-speaking farming communities. According to Gergen (1994), narrative forms – such as the stability narrative, progressive narrative and regressive narrative – are linguistic tools that have important social functions to fulfil. Gergen (1994) further indicates that self-narratives are social processes in which individuals are realised on the personal perspective or experience. The self-narratives used and analysed in this study portray the contemporary, truth-based elements of a well-formed narrative. Narrative accounts are also embedded within social action; they render events socially visible and typically establish expectations for future events because the events of daily life are immersed in narrative. The study starts by laying the foundation for the reasons why human beings tell stories and why stories are so important in people’s daily lives, since most people begin their encounters with stories at childhood. Possibly because of this intimate and long-standing acquaintance with stories from childhood, stories also serve as critical means by which human beings make themselves intelligible within the social world. This study further examines the motivations and conditions for account-giving in isiXhosa. Accounts are similar to narratives and can be retained at the level of private reflections for others to read, to be educated and to learn from and to refer to from time to time. Gergen (1994) considers self-narratives as forms of social accounting or public discourse. In this sense, narratives are conversational resources, their construction open to continuous alteration as interaction progresses. The study elaborates on this phenomenon, especially in the narrative accounts of the various isiXhosa stories that were collected and analysed. What emerges from the analyses is that the individual characters whose stories are told are portrayed as moving through their experience, dealing with some conflict or problem in their lives and, at the same time, searching for a resolution. It also emerges from the collection of these various isiXhosa narratives that they sharpen our understanding of the major stressful situations in each person’s mind and how the individual reasons about the difficulties encountered in life. The narratives prove, in this regard, to be a cultural resource that serves social purposes, such as self-identification, self-justification, self criticism and social solidification. In this sense then, for an account to be true, it has to be goal-orientated and relate to people’s day-to-day lives. The study finds that the social-interactive aspects of account-giving involve severe reproach forms, including personal attacks and derogatory aspects, which elicit defensive reactions resulting in negative interpersonal and emotional consequences.