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This paper examines the integration of nonformal and formal education at the level of higher education, specifically for the training of nonformal education fieldworkers. Several patterns of possible linkages between these two educational spheres are defined and described. These patterns explain strategies ranging from programs centrally planned to rural level university programs. From this overview of linkages, seven conditions favorable for the development of integrative linkages are identified. An in depth study of a formal-nonformal integrated program in Indonesia is presented. Underlying this program are linkages between teacher training institutes and a government community education organization for the traning of nonformal education fieldworkers. Central to the program is a one-year diploma course in nonformal education. This paper examines the balance and merger of practice and theory in the curriculum, describes the field practicum, and evaluates staff development workshops and administrative relationships between these two educational organizations. The outcome of the study is an analytical framework that intersects the conditions favorable for integrative linkages with input and design factors. The framework provides a check list of program areas where integrative development might occur. Educational program planners can use the analytical framework as a tool to help design, examine, evaluate and transform programs that involve linkages between formal and nonformal education. In conclusion, nonformal education, while more reflective of community participation and needs, has neither gained the institutional stability nor credibility of formal education. Moreover, nonformal education fieldworkers have usually been poorly qualified and/or transient. More expensive and in greater social demand, formal education takes up the major portion of most developing countries' budgets. This study advocates that educational planners look towards the integration of nonformal and formal education at the level of higher education in the hopes of minimizing the weaknesses inherent in their separateness and capitalizing on the potential strengths of integration.

This explorative study sought to examine the educational experiences of older adults (from 60 to 80) who were participating in adult education programs. The study used a phenomenological model; three in-depth interviews explored the motivation, experience and meaning of late life participation in educational programs. Informed by psychosocial developmental theory, the study emphasized the task of life review within the last stage of adult development. The study found that in a small sample of ethnically diverse older adults personal motivation, experience, and meaning of adult education exhibited themes related to continuing early life constructs such as social class identity, family goals and early educational experiences. Hence, motivations for formal learning at this point in life were related to individual personal constructs; in several participants these included the phenomenon of life review. Many of the older adults returned to school to complete life goals which had not been satisfied at younger ages, others wanted to "compete" with younger versions of themselves, to prove that they were still capable of learning, to make clearer their own personal histories, or to find contributory outlets. Individual motivational themes were reflected in the participants' experience of adult education and in the personal and historical meanings they made of it. The study presents in detail the stories of six participants and attempts to tie together their motivation, experience and meaning within the larger population and within a psychosocial developmental framework. Implications for education are explored.

This paper examines planning considerations for universities' participation in nonformal education. The main purpose of the study is to help guide the policy-makers and planners in Korea who are engaged in the formulation of strategies which will lead to a greater involvement of Korean universities in nonformal education. This involvement is in keeping with the full intention of promoting nonformal and lifelong education in Korean society under the provisions of the new constitution as revised in 1980. The methodological approach combines a critical survey of literature, of three case studies and an analytical survey of needs assessments. The survey of literature incorporates a comprehensive review of educational dilemmas in the world context, the potentials of non-formal education in promoting people's lifelong learning, and the roles and values of higher education in the world as well as the Korean context. The case studies highlight the models appropriate for adoption within the Korean higher education system in order to maximize Korean universities' involvement in nonformal education. The survey of needs analysis, which is the most central aspect of this study, was designed for utilizing ideas and issues related to Korean universities' participation in nonformal education as major needs components for the formulation of the Nonformal Education Act. The several data gathering approaches suggest these major recommendations for increasing coordination between the Korean universities' and the nonformal education's efforts: establish a system for preparing specialists in nonformal education in universities; arrange for university representation in national nonformal education policy bodies; provide financial support to universities for nonformal education efforts; and increase the effective dissemination of university findings concerning nonformal education. This study supports the thesis that the tensions between formal and nonformal education in Korea can be a creative source of energy and ideas, building on the strengths of both systems.

This action research study implemented an intervention, the Learn at Work program, for operational employees in facilities management at William & Mary earning less than $19 an hour. One of eight dimensions in the Workplace Inclusion Scale, developed by Lennox et al. (2022), is “access to opportunity” (p. 27). This study’s theoretical framework included feelings of individual belonging, coupled with workplace learning, as powerful factors in shaping workplace experience. The program offered various opportunities: (a) health, computer, and financial literacy classes; (b) university-led workshops; and (c) individual tutoring. Two research questions guided the study: (a) What training and learning opportunities are of interest for operational employees earning less than $39,520 annually, and $19 an hour, when presented a menu of options in a higher education setting? and (b) How does participation in classes, workshops or tutoring during the workday impact the work experience and lives of the participants? Among the population (159), 32.7% participated in at least one aspect of the program. Findings established participants were interested in (a) a variety of learning and training options, (b) pathways to promotion, and (c) more knowledge about workplace benefits. Class participants (n = 24) had a statistically significant improved work experience during the intervention, and the impact transcended boundaries of work and life. The program improved personal relationships and offered a positive learning experience. Recommendations include staffing and structural changes that enable and support increased opportunity, career advancement, and a sense of belonging for operational employees at William & Mary.

Mental health professionals who provide treatment to sex offenders navigate the complex legal, ethics and moral intersections surrounding the population within the professional-personal dialectic. The purpose of this research study was to explore the potential relationship between mental health professional’s attitudes toward sex offenders and their level of moral development in order to encourage increasingly effective training and experiential interventions which then may impact treatment outcomes. Research participants included licensed and non-licensed counselors, social workers and psychologists (n = 135). Along with a demographic questionnaire and the Marlowe- Crowne Social Desirability Scale, the Defining Issues Test was used as a measure of moral development and the Community Attitudes Toward Sex Offender Scale evaluated the attitudes of mental health professionals toward the sex offender population. This study identified a statistically significant relationship between a mental health professional’s level of moral development and attitude toward sex offenders with 6.2% of the variation in attitudes related to DIT-II N2 scores. Mental health professionals that engaged in greater amounts of self-directed training endorsed less negative attitudes toward sex offenders. No relationship was found between the mental health professional’s length of experience, other types of training and attitudes toward sex offenders. The results and limitations identified within this study support further development of this line of research with an emphasis on recruiting a sample with a larger representation of participants with sex offenders specific credentialing and with the inclusion of additional or alternative assessments related to evaluating attitudes toward sex offenders.

Dyslexia is a learning disability that hinders a person's ability to process elements of reading and writing. Although younger students with dyslexia often receive remedial education and accommodations, dyslexic college students may not receive assistance targeted to their individual needs. The purpose of this qualitative case study was to ascertain the challenges that might impede the academic success of college students with dyslexia and identify strategies used by academically successful dyslexic students at a 2-year college. Knowles's theory of informal adult education and self-direction provided the conceptual framework for the study. Using a case study design, 10 current college students who had a diagnosis of dyslexia with documentation on file at the college's student support center and a minimum 3.0-grade point average were purposefully selected to participate. Data from semi-structured interviews and reflective field notes were analyzed using open coding to develop themes. Eight themes emerged related to Knowles' constructs; 4 as challenges (accelerated pace, communication, time management, and concentration) and 4 as strategies to improve educational outcomes (technical assistance, organization, support, and modification). A workshop and mentoring program were developed to provide academic support for college students with dyslexia, highlighting those areas that dyslexic students identified as challenging. Continued research on the educational needs of older students with dyslexia was recommended. Targeted interventions for students with dyslexia may result in a positive social change by helping them achieve a higher education degree and become successful members of their communities.

In three low socioeconomic urban communities of Greenwood (pseudonym), young men's lack of education provides dim prospects of employment, possibly causing the young men to turn to gun violence. The purpose of this study was to understand the perceptions of concerned clergy, law officials, and members of a Neighborhood Watch organization regarding the factors that contribute to gun violence in the southern communities in the United States. The conceptual framework for this study was Bandura's modeling theory. The central research question addressed how the community stakeholder groups described their perceptions regarding gun violence among young male adults. For this qualitative case study, a total of 9 stakeholders from the clergy, law officials, and Neighborhood Watch organization who had knowledge about the issues being investigated were selected through purposeful sampling and interviewed individually and in a focus group. The data were coded and categorized for themes. Thick descriptions of the stakeholder perspectives were combined with notes and interviews. The emerging themes were lack of education, inappropriate leadership, and an unhealthy community life; therefore, suggesting that professional development needs to be provided to the stakeholders on how to support the unemployed men in achieving skills through education, developing leadership skills through positive role modeling, and building a better community life through nonviolent social skills. The results indicated that applying skills to the service of young men exposed to gun violence would contribute to positive social change by understanding other potential causes of the gun violence problem. The implications for positive social change will become evident as young men become educated, find employment, and regain self-esteem and confidence in their ability to lead.

Master of Arts (MA)

The purpose of this exploratory study was to determine if urban universities truly support faculty in carrying out the universities' self-stated commitment to professional service. Professional service refers to significant professional activities outside the categories of teaching and scholarship that draw upon one's professional expertise in his or her academic discipline. A secondary purpose was to identify the incentives universities employ to encourage professional service.;Two public, urban universities in Virginia were studied for this project. The population for this study consisted of two groups at each of the two institutions: full-time faculty currently involved (within the past five years) in professional service activity and the continuing education administrator.;The case study approach was used and included content analysis of institutional documents related to professional service and survey analysis.;The main research question addressed was: at institutions which claim professional service as central to their mission, are there incentives or rewards for faculty participation? Five subsidiary research questions were also addressed: (1) Do institutions clearly define professional service? (2) Do institutions have clear cut incentives and rewards for professional service? (3) Are there negative consequences for faculty who engage in professional service? (4) Do institutional policies exist for evaluating professional service? (5) Do institutional leaders actively support professional service?;It was concluded that few incentives exist for faculty who choose to participate in professional service activity. From the perspective of the faculty respondents, this mission of continuing education and professional service as well as other non-research roles are not attractive areas to devote much professional time to, as the time spent on such activities competes with research time and instructional activity which represent greater potential for personal reward. Also, it was concluded that the definition and policy for professional service are often fragmented and vague.;The generalizability of the findings are limited because the faculty participants in this study hold appointments at public, urban universities. Similar studies including a larger number of faculty participants employed at different kinds of institutions would be helpful. Also, further study is needed on specific criteria for evaluating faculty professional service and the leadership role for professional service within the institution.