Nos frutos, a cor é fundamental para a aceitabilidade inicial do consumidor, especialmente para os chamados \"pequenos frutos\" como morangos e framboesas, sendo um critério tradicional para a apreciação e seleção do estado de maturação. Em framboesas (Rubus idaeus), as pesquisas têm focado a síntese de antocianinas, os pigmentos mais abundantes nesta espécie. Seus precursores provem da via de biossíntese dos fenilpropanóides, porém os fatores que regulam a atividade dessa via metabólica ainda são pouco conhecidos. Sabe-se que alguns hormônios como o etileno, o ácido indol-3-acético (AIA), o ácido abscísico (ABA) e o metil-jasmonato (MJ) estão relacionados à inibição da síntese ou aumento no acúmulo destes flavonóides. Neste contexto, o objetivo do trabalho é avaliar o efeito destes fatores hormonais sobre a biossíntese de antocianinas em framboesas da cultivar (cv.) Autumn Bliss. Foram avaliados os efeitos dos hormônios sobre as características físico-químicas e fisiológicas dos frutos (açúcares solúveis, ácidos orgânicos, respiração, síntese de etileno, cor), conteúdo de compostos fenólicos e flavonóides. Também foram quantificados os níveis de AIA livre, ABA e MJ e a expressão relativa das enzimas antocianidina sintase (ANS), dihidroflavonol redutase (DFR) e do fator de transcrição MYB10, regulador da transcrição de genes da via de biossíntese de antocianinas em framboesas. As alterações mais significativas foram observadas no tratamento com MJ, para o qual os frutos apresentaram acentuada produção de etileno (sem efeito sobre a respiração) e também na cor, mais acentuada nos frutos maduros deste grupo em comparação com os frutos do grupo controle. O MJ também induziu aumento nos níveis de expressão relativa de MYB, ANS e DFR, nos dois primeiros dias pós-colheita. Outro grupo que se destacou foi o tratado com AIA por apresentar inibição na síntese de antocianinas e compostos fenólicos, a qual foi correlacionada à inibição da transcrição do MYB e ANS. O ABA por sua vez, inibiu o acúmulo de transcritos da DFR, de forma correlata ao menor acúmulo de antocianinas. Exceto pelo ACC, que não produziu efeitos significativos em nenhum dos parâmetros avaliados, os resultados indicam que o metabolismo de antocianinas deve ser regulado por múltiplos sinais hormonais. / The color is fundamental for the fruits, for the initial acceptability of the consumers, is a factor that influence the appreciation and selection of the maturity stage, especially for berries, like strawberries and raspberries. In raspberries (Rubus idaeus), the research have focused on the anthocyanin biosynthesis, the pigments most frequent on this species. Their precursors came from the phenylpropanoid pathway but the factors that regulate this metabolic pathway remain unclear. There are evidences that some phytohormones as ethylene, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) abscisic acid (ABA) and methyl jasmonate (MJ) are related to the inhibition or increase of these flavonoids on fruits. In this context, the aim of this study is to evaluate the effect of these phytohormones on the anthocyanin pathway in raspberries Autumn Bliss. It was evaluated the effects of these phytohormones in some physico-chemical and physiologic characteristics of these fruits (soluble sugars, organic acids, respiration, ethylene biosynthesis, color), phenolic compounds and flavonoid content. Also, it was quantified the auxin, ABA and MJ levels, and the relative transcript levels of anthocyanidin synthase (ANS), dihydroflavonol 4-reductase (DFR) and the transcriptional factor MYB10, a transcriptional regulator of the anthocyanin pathway in raspberries. The most significant alterations were observed on MJ treatment, in which the ethylene production in berries reach the highest levels (without effect on the respiration) and the most intense red color on ripe fruits in comparison with the control group. MJ also induced the increase on relative expression of MYB, ANS and DFR two days after harvest prior to the anthocyanin accumulation. Other noticeable effect was detected in the IAA group in which anthocyanin synthesis and phenolic compound content were inhibited and related to the inhibition of MYB and ANS transcription. ABA inhibited the DFR transcript accumulation, related to the delay in anthocyanins synthesis in relation to control group. Except by ACC, that did not have significant effects in any of the evaluated parameters, the results suggest that the anthocyanin metabolism might be regulate for multiple hormonal signs.

O Brasil é o segundo maior produtor de soja (Glycine max, L.), sendo responsável por quase 30% da colheita mundial. Mais de 80% da produção total é destinada à extração de óleo e proteína para a alimentação humana, sendo que o consumo na forma de grão e de produtos industrializados vem crescendo, como alternativa a proteínas de origem animal e devido aos potenciais benefícios à saúde. Grande parte da literatura científica refere-se à soja amarela, enquanto estudos sobre soja preta ainda são escassos. Este projeto visou estudar e comparar as características físicas e de composição química, incluindo os compostos fenólicos e atividade antioxidante da soja preta e amarela, cultivadas no Brasil em condições climáticas e ambientais similares. Fez parte do escopo do projeto avaliar o efeito do cozimento sobre os compostos polifenólicos e a atividade antioxidante. Não foi observada diferença significativa no conteúdo de nutrientes e no perfil de ácidos graxos entre a soja preta e amarela, nem nas características físicas, como massa, capacidade de hidratação e tempo de cozimento dos grãos. Porém, a soja preta apresentou teores muito mais elevados de compostos fenólicos totais (CFT) e de flavonóides em relação à soja amarela. Os teores na soja preta foram, em média, de 4,78 mg eq. ácido gálico/g e de 1,75 mg eq. catequina/g, de CFT e de flavonoides,respectivamente. A soja amarela apresentou em média 40% a menos de CFT e aproximadamente 60% a menos de flavonóides. Ao contrário da soja amarela que é desprovida de antocianinas, na soja preta foi encontrado um teor médio de 0,92 mg eq. cianidina-3-O-glicosídeo/g. Empregando a técnica de HPLC-DAD-MS/MS foram identificadas duas antocianinas, a cianidina-3-O-glicosídeo e a peonidina-3-Oglicosídeo, além da cianidina. A soja preta apresentou atividade antioxidante 70% superior à soja amarela pelo método de DPPH e 50% superior, pelo método de ORAC. O cozimento dos grãos reduziu em pelo menos 40% o teor de compostos fenólicos e a atividade antioxidante, tanto na soja preta como na amarela. Foi observada uma forte correlação entre os teores de CFT, flavonóides e a atividade antioxidante, antes e após o cozimento. Assim, o consumo de soja preta ou mesmo a produção de novos alimentos a partir desses grãos poderá oferecer ao consumidor a possibilidade de diversificar a sua dieta, introduzindo um alimento com a mesma qualidade nutricional da soja amarela e, possivelmente, maiores benefícios à saúde. Vislumbra-se a possibilidade de expansão do cultivo da soja preta, inclusive por pequenos produtores, criando um novo nicho de mercado para um alimento diferenciado. / Brazil is the second largest producer of soybean (Glycine max, L.), accounting for almost 30% of the world\'s production. Over 80% of the total production is destined to oil extraction and protein for human consumption. Soybean and soy-product consumption has been rising as an alternative to animal protein and due to its potential health benefits. Most of the scientific literature refers to yellow soybeans, while studies on black soybeans are still scarce. This project aimed to study and compare black and yellow soybeans, cultivated in Brazil in similar climatic and environmental conditions, as to their physical characteristics and chemical composition, including phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity. The effect of cooking on phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity was also investigated. No significant difference was observed between black and yellow soybeans as to nutrient content, fatty acid composition and physical characteristics, such as seed-weight, hydration capacity and cooking time. However, black soybeans had a much higher content of total phenolic compounds (TPC) and flavonoids than yellow soybeans. TPC and flavonoid contents in black soybeans were 4.78 mg gallic acid equivalents/g and 1.75 mg (+)-catechin equivalents/g, respectively. Yellow soybeans had on average 40% less TPC and approximately 60% less flavonoids. Unlike yellow soybeans which lack anthocyanins, black soybeans were found to have an average content of 0.92 mg cyanidin-3-O-glucoside equivalents/g. High performance liquid chromatography coupled to photodiode array and mass spectrometry detectors (HPLCDADMS/MS) was used to identify two anthocyanins, namely cyanidin-3-Oglucoside and peonidin-3-O-glucoside, and cyanidin. Black soybeans also showed a 70% higher DPPH-free radical scavenging activity than yellow soybeans, and a 50% higher ORAC value. Cooking reduced at least 40% of phenolic compounds and antioxidant capacity in all soybean samples, both black and yellow. High correlations between phenolic compositions and antioxidant activities were observed, before and after cooking. These results suggest that black soybean consumption or new processed food products from these crops may offer consumers an opportunity to diversify their diet with food nutritionally equivalent to yellow soybeans, but possibly with greater health benefits. The possibility of expanding black soybean cultivation, including small-scale production, may create a new market niche for a value-added food product.

Cette thèse porte sur l’éco-extraction et l’encapsulation de pigments naturels pour une exploitation et application dans les industries alimentaire, cosmétique et pharmaceutique. Dans ce but, l'extraction assistée par micro-ondes (MAE) ou par ultrasons (UAE) et celle par liquides ioniques (LI) ont été évaluées pour l'extraction de caroténoïdes et d'anthocyanes de plantes vietnamiennes. Les résultats obtenus montrent que le MAE a été un système permettant d'accélérer et d'améliorer tous les types d'extraction testés alors que les ultrasons se sont montrés particulièrement efficaces lorsque les pigments étaient présents à la surface des tissus végétaux. Cependant, l’UAE améliore également les résultats par rapport à des extractions sans assistance. Les LI classiques ne sont pas adaptés pour l’extraction des pigments caroténoïdes et anthocyaniques qui sont généralement non volatils et thermosensibles car il n'a pas été possible de séparer les pigments extraits des LI dans des conditions douces. Pour remédier à ce problème, des LI réversibles ont été évalués. Le DBU/ 1-hexanol était efficace pour extraire les caroténoïdes relativement accessibles, mais, en raison d'une viscosité élevée, il perdait son efficacité pour d'autres tissus. La deuxième partie de cette thèse concerne l’encapsulation d’anthocyanes d’hibiscus dans des levures. Nous avons d’abord travaillé avec des levures entières. Les résultats ont montré que les cellules de levure étaient un bon matériau pour l'encapsulation des anthocyanes. Cependant, pour les levures non désactivées, les enzymes ont provoqué une perte indésirable de couleur des anthocyanines pendant le stockage. Les microparticules de levures traitées thermiquement ont montré un effet protecteur élevé pendant le stockage. Puis, comme les anthocyanes étaient majoritairement encapsulées dans le réseau pariétal des levures, nous avons utilisé les écorces de levures séparées du reste des cellules. Les microparticules des écorces de levure ont apporté une bonne protection pour les anthocyanes contre l'humidité, la chaleur et la lumière. En comparant avec les microparticules de maltodextrine, celles des écorces de levure étaient plus stables dans des conditions d'humidité élevée. En général, les microparticules de levure ont montré une capacité à protéger les anthocyanes et à garder la couleur rouge de la poudre d’anthocyanes encapsulées. Ces résultats montrent que la poudre d’anthocyanes encapsulées dans des levures ou écorces de levure a un avenir prometteur pour être appliquée dans les industries alimentaire, cosmétique et pharmaceutique. / This thesis deals with extraction processes using assistance technologies or green solvents and encapsulation systems of natural pigments in order to exploit and apply them in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. In this goal, microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), ultrasonic-assisted extraction (UAE) and Ionic liquids (IL) were evaluated for the extraction of carotenoids and anthocyanins from Vietnamese plants. The results obtained show that the MAE was always a rapid and helpful system for all types of extraction tested whereas ultrasounds were particularly efficient when pigments are present on the surface of plant tissues. However, UAE was also improving results compared to conditions without assistance. Traditional IL are not suitable for the extraction of carotenoid and anthocyanin pigments that are generally non-volatile and heat-sensitive because it has not been possible to separate pigments extracted from IL under mild conditions. Therefore switchable IL were evaluated. DBU/ 1-hexanol was efficient to extract carotenoids that were relatively accessible, but, due to its high viscosity, it lost efficacy for other tissues. The second part of this thesis concerns the encapsulation of Hibiscus anthocyanins in yeasts. We have first worked with whole yeast cells. The results showed that yeast cells were a good material for the encapsulation of anthocyanins. However, yeast enzymes caused undesirable colour loss of anthocyanin during storage. Microparticles of heat-treated yeasts showed a high protective effect during storage. Then, as it was interesting to keep the pigments in the cell wall and deactivate the yeast enzymes, we used yeast hulls. Yeast hull particles brought a good protection to anthocyanins against moisture, heat and light. In comparison with maltodextrin microparticles, yeast hull ones were more stable in high humidity. In general, yeast microparticles have shown an ability to protect anthocyanins and to keep the red color of encapsulated anthocyanin powder. These results show that yeast encapsulated anthocyanins powder has a promising future to be applied in the food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries.

Submitted by Eunice Novais (enovais@uepg.br) on 2018-02-07T12:08:16Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 811 bytes, checksum: e39d27027a6cc9cb039ad269a5db8e34 (MD5) Isabela Leticia Pessenti.pdf: 2816974 bytes, checksum: 7ddb844219627cfd4008623f5e811191 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-02-07T12:08:17Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 811 bytes, checksum: e39d27027a6cc9cb039ad269a5db8e34 (MD5) Isabela Leticia Pessenti.pdf: 2816974 bytes, checksum: 7ddb844219627cfd4008623f5e811191 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-07-21 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / As condições climáticas apresentam forte influência na cultura da videira. O alto índice de precipitação e a baixa amplitude térmica, por exemplo, podem fazer com que as uvas não alcancem índices adequados de maturação. Com o objetivo de verificar o efeito da desfolha, da aplicação do ácido abscisico e de extratos vegetais na qualidade de uvas, dois experimentos foram conduzidos em vinhedo comercial com as cvs. Primitivo e Malbec, respectivamente, em Água Doce–SC. Os tratamentos foram os seguintes para o experimento 1: 1) testemunha (sem tratamento); 2) desfolha manual no início da maturação (estádio “pintor”); 3) desfolha manual 15 dias após a primeira desfolha; 4) ácido abscísico 200 mg L-1; 5) ácido abscísico 400 mg L-1; 6) ácido abscísico 600 mg L-1. Para o experimento 2 foram incluídos dois tratamentos adicionais: 7) extrato de gervão 100 g L-1, 8) extrato de capim limão 100 g L-1. Foram realizadas as seguintes avaliações: massa e diâmetro de bagas, diâmetro e comprimento de ramos, massa de cachos, teor de sólidos solúveis, acidez titulável, relação sólidos solúveis/acidez, pH, teor de antocianinas, polifenóis totais, teor de flavonoides, intensidade de cor, radiação fotossinteticamente ativa, índice de clorofila, índice de desfolha e de clorose, luminosidade, croma, tonalidade, índice de coloração para bagas vermelhas e teor de álcool para o vinho. A desfolha e a aplicação de S-ABA não apresentou efeitos sobre as características químicas dos cachos e bagas nas duas cultivares. Houve maior radiação fotossinteticamente ativa nos tratamentos de desfolha e S-ABA. A aplicação de S-ABA proporcionou clorose nas folhas, seguido de baixo teor de clorofila, ocasionando a senescência, seguido de desfolha. A desfolha e a aplicação de ácido abscísico proporcionaram níveis aumentados de polifenóis totais, antocianinas, flavonoides e intensidade de cor, tanto na uva Primitivo, quanto na Malbec e no vinho. Os extratos vegetais aplicados não influenciaram nas análises físico-químicas, no teor de antocianinas e polifenóis totais, apenas no teor de flavonoides e intensidade de cor na cv Malbec. / Climatic conditions have a strong influence on grapevine cultivation. The high rate of rainfall and low temperature range, for example, can cause the grapes do not reach adequate maturation indexes. In order to check the effect of defoliation, the application of abscisic acid and application of plant extracts on the quality of grapes, two experiments were conducted in commercial vineyard with the cvs. Primitivo and Malbec, respectively, in Água Doce – SC. The treatments were as follows for experiment 1: 1) control (no treatment); 2) manual defoliation in early maturation (‘veraison’); 3) defoliation 15 days after the first manual defoliation; 4) abscisic acid 200 mg L-1; 5) abscisic acid 400 mg L-1; 6) abscisic acid 600 mg L-1. For experiment 2 were included two additional treatments: 7) gervão extract 100 g L-1, 8) extract lemon grass 100 g L-1. The following reviews were carried out: mass and berry diameter, diameter and length of branches, number and mass of branches, soluble solids, titratable acidity, soluble solids/acidity, pH, anthocyanins, total polyphenols, flavonoids, color intensity, photosynthetically active radiation, chlorophyll index, index of defoliation and chlorosis, lightness, chroma, hue, color index for red berries and alcohol content for wine. Defoliation and application of S-ABA showed no effects on the chemical characteristics of the bunches and berries in the two cultivars. There was a higher photosynthetically active radiation treatments of defoliation and S-ABA. The application of S-ABA provided chlorosis in leaves, followed by low chlorophyll content, causing the senescence, followed by defoliation. Defoliation and application of abscisic acid have provided increased levels of total polyphenols, anthocyanins, flavonoids and color intensity, both in Primitivo grape as the Malbec and wine. The plant extracts applied did not influence on the physical and chemical analyses, the anthocyanins and total polyphenols, flavonoids content only and intensity of color in cv Malbec.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-10T19:24:22Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Claudia_ Moura (Tese revisada) (1).pdf: 3911895 bytes, checksum: 0a37c7fb902019cf109ae32f1afc5dde (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-05 / Jabuticaba tree (Plinia sp.) is a native species that has been widely distributed in almost all regions of Brazil. Recently, different native fruits, including jabuticaba, have been a research aim in order to investigate the best benefit of its nutritional properties. In order to arouse new alternatives for better utilization of agro-industrial by-products with nutritional and functional properties, researchers are seeking to develop innovative and functional bioactive products. By this angle, this study aimed at evaluating whether different jabuticaba juice extraction processes applied to obtain peels interfered on its nutritional properties as well as on the subsequent dehydration in order to turn a nutrient-rich residue, agro-industrial benefitted, in a food product that can be attractive to the consumer, as well as easy to be handled, stored and transported. Thus, this study was divided into three phases: the first one was divided according to the acquisition of jabuticaba fruits, from two identified genotypes as: one genotype as acquired in Clevelândia farm (25°07'20" S and 52°19'15" W) and the other genotype from Verê farm (25°53'1'' S: 52° 55' 11'' W). The fruits underwent through extraction process by crushing and forced steam to obtain peels. Subsequently, peels were submitted to dehydration process in an oven with forced air circulation at 70 °C. Then, after being dehydrated, they were ground and sieved to an 80-mesh size to obtain powder. Analyses were carried out to evaluate the influence of these processes in bioactive compounds and their variations based on samples of fresh jabuticaba peels from each genotype, since they underwent through the extraction process and then dehydration. This research was based on physicochemical analyses of hydroalcoholic extracts of samples. Centesimal composition parameters were evaluated: total soluble solids (TSS), titratable acidity, pH, ash, fiber, protein and moisture content, bioactive compounds (phenols, flavonoids and anthocyanins) and antioxidant activity (DPPH, ABTS and FRAP). The way jabuticaba peel was extracted (fresh or dried - powder) did not influence the obtained physicochemical results, or antioxidant activities measured by ABTS and FRAP. Jabuticaba peels of both studied genotypes, extracted by crushing, showed the best contents concerning flavonoids, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity by DPPH method. Jabuticaba peels of Clevelândia genotype showed the highest antioxidant content, flavonoids, phenolic, ABTS and FRAP. In the second moment of this trial, there was some effect of storage in anthocyanin content, antioxidant activity according to three different methods (DPPH, FRAP and ABTS), flavonoids, phenolic and physicochemical characteristics (moisture content, total acidity, pH, ashes, protein and fiber) of such waste powder (to obtain jabuticaba peel powder from both genotypes, extracted by steam and crushing). They also were vacuum packed and stored for 135 days. It was observed that the extraction by crushing showed the best results for DPPH activity according to the storage time and jabuticaba peel from Clevelândia genotype showed the highest antioxidant activity when compared to Verê genotype at the start time and over 135 storage days. Likewise this time has not changed, parameters as acidity and total protein content were obtained in both genotypes and their different extraction processes of jabuticaba powder peel. For the third phase, two evaluated waste samples were selected in phases I and II, which powder peel of Clevelândia genotype was extracted by forced-steam process (GCLV) while powder peel of Verê genotype was extracted by crushing (GVRE). Then, microbiological analyses were carried out (coliforms at 45 °C g-1, Salmonella spp. 25g-1 and yeasts and molds) with natural yogurt and selected powder peels of jabuticaba. Subsequently, four formulations were prepared and two of them were for each genotype: 3.6% GCLV and 1.8% GCLV while two ratios were for (3.6% / 1.8%) GVRE samples. The formulations were submitted to sensorial analyses of acceptability, purchase intent, frequency and reason for the evaluated product consumption, with 100 untrained consumers. The quality of jabuticaba peel color (Verê/Clevelândia genotypes) in powder was also evaluated after extraction xi (steam/crushing), and a*, b*, L*, C*, H* and Δab* color coordinates were analyzed. The dehydrated product and yogurt showed a low counting for filamentous fungi, yeasts, thermotolerant coliforms and absence of Salmonella spp., which indicates some good processing conditions. The addition of jabuticaba peel powder in yogurt resulted in good acceptance for samples such as 1.8g GCLV; 3.6g GCLV and 1.8g GVRE, whose answers varied from: I liked moderately and I liked very much . These samples received results of good intention to buy samples such as 1.8g GCLV, 3.6g GCLV and 1.8g GVRE. Concerning color, there was no effect on the quality of jabuticaba peel powder up to 135 storage days. Generally, the obtained peels by crushing showed the highest contents of flavonoids, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity by DPPH method. Therefore, antioxidants of this product in yogurt is a promising alternative, since the results showed good rates for both genotypes and extraction treatments (steam/crushing). Wherefore, this process not only provides some proper disposal for waste but also uses important nutrients and natural dyes to add value to several kinds of foodstuff. / A jabuticabeira (Plinia sp.) é uma espécie nativa que se encontra amplamente distribuída em quase todas as regiões brasileiras. Recentemente, diferentes frutos nativos, entre eles a jabuticaba, têm sido alvo de pesquisa para investigar o melhor aproveitamento de suas propriedades nutricionais. Com perspectivas de trazer novas alternativas para o melhor aproveitamento de subprodutos agroindustriais que tenham propriedades nutritivas e funcionais, pesquisadores estão buscando o desenvolvimento de produtos inovadores e funcionais (bioativos). Por esse viés, este trabalho objetivou avaliar se diferentes processos de extração de suco de jabuticaba para obtenção das cascas interferiam nas suas propriedades nutritivas bem como na posterior desidratação, com o intuito de transformar um resíduo rico em nutrientes, aproveitado agroindustrialmente, em um produto alimentício atrativo para o consumidor, além da facilidade de manuseio, armazenamento e transporte. Sendo assim, este estudo foi dividido em três fases: a primeira com a aquisição dos frutos de jabuticabeira, de dois genótipos, identificados como genótipo adquirido no sítio em Clevelândia ( 25°07 20 S e 52°19 15 W,) e genótipo do sítio em Verê (25° 53' 1'' S: 52° 55' 11'' W). Os frutos passaram pelo processo de extração por esmagamento e por vapor forçado, para obtenção da casca. Na sequência, foram submetidas ao processo de desidratação em estufa com circulação forçada de ar a 70 °C. Depois de desidratadas foram moídas e peneiradas com granulometria 80 mesh para obtenção do pó. Foram realizadas análises para avaliar a influência desses processos nos compostos bioativos e suas variações nas amostras das cascas frescas de jabuticaba dos genótipos, ao passarem pelos processos de extrações e em seguida desidratação. Esta investigação decorreu a partir de análises físico-químicas dos extratos hidroalcoólicos das amostras. Foram avaliados os parâmetros da composição centesimal: sólidos solúveis totais (SST), acidez titulável, pH, cinzas, fibras, proteínas e grau de umidade, compostos bioativos (fenóis, flavonoides e antocianinas) e atividade antioxidante (DPPH, ABTS e FRAP). O tipo de extração da casca de jabuticaba fresca ou desidratada (em pó) não influenciou nos resultados físico-químicos, nem para as atividades antioxidantes medidas por ABTS e FRAP. As cascas de jabuticaba de ambos genótipos, extraídas por esmagamento, apresentaram melhores índices de flavonoides, fenólicos e atividade antioxidante pelo método DPPH. As cascas de jabuticabas do genótipo Clevelândia apresentaram maior teor de antioxidante, flavonoides, fenólicos, ABTS e FRAP. Na segunda fase do trabalho verificou-se o efeito do armazenamento, nos conteúdos de antocianinas, atividade antioxidante por três métodos distintos (DPPH, FRAP e ABTS), flavonoides, fenólicos e características físico-químicas (teor de umidade, acidez titulável, pH e cinzas proteína e fibra) do pó destes resíduos (obtenção da casca de jabuticaba em pó de dois genótipos, extraídos a vapor e esmagamento), embalados a vácuo e armazenados por 135 dias. Observou-se que a extração por esmagamento apresentou melhores resultados para atividade de DPPH em função do tempo de armazenamento e que a casca de jabuticaba do genótipo Clevelândia apresentou maior atividade antioxidante em relação à casca do genótipo Verê, no tempo inicial e ao longo de 135 dias de armazenamento. Além deste tempo não ter sido alterado, foram obtidos os parâmetros de acidez e teor de proteína totais em ambos genótipos e seus distintos processos de extrações da casca de jabuticaba em pó. Para fase três, foram selecionados dois dos resíduos avaliados nas fases I e II, cujo pó da casca de jabuticaba do genótipo de Clevelândia foi extraído pelo processo a vapor (GCLV) e o pó da casca de jabuticaba do genótipo de Verê foi extraído por esmagamento (GVRE). Em seguida, foram realizadas análises microbiológicas (coliformes a 45°C g-1, Salmonella spp. 25g-1 e bolores e leveduras) com o iogurte natural e com a cascas de jabuticaba em pó, selecionadas. Na sequência, foram elaboradas quatro formulações sendo duas para cada genótipo: GCLV ix 3,6% e GCLV 1,8% e duas proporções para as amostras, GVRE (3,6% e 1,8%). As formulações foram submetidas às análises sensorial de aceitabilidade, intenção de compra, frequência e motivo do consumo do produto avaliado, contando com 100 consumidores não treinados. Também foi avaliada a qualidade da cor das cascas de jabuticaba (genótipo Verê/Clevelândia) em pó após extrações (vapor/esmagamento), e foram analisadas as coordenadas de cor a*, b*, L*, C*, H* e Δab*. O produto desidratado e o iogurte apresentaram baixa contagem para fungos filamentosos, leveduras, coliformes termotolerantes e ausência de Salmonella spp., indicando boas condições de processamento. A adição da casca de jabuticaba em pó, no iogurte, resultou em boa aceitação para as amostras GCLV 1,8g; GCLV 3,6 g e GVRE 1,8g situando-se entre o termo gostei moderadamente e gostei muito. As mesmas obtiveram resultados de boa intenção de compra para as amostras GCLV 1,8g; GCLV 3,6 g e GVRE 1,8g. Na cor, a casca de jabuticaba em pó não teve a qualidade afetada até 135 dias de armazenamento. De forma geral, as cascas obtidas por esmagamento apresentaram melhores índices de flavonoides, fenólicos e atividade antioxidante pelo método DPPH. Portanto, os antioxidantes desse produto em iogurte é uma alternativa promissora, visto que obtiveram resultados com bons índices para ambos genótipos e tratamentos de extração (vapor/esmagamento). Logo, além de dar destinação adequada a um resíduo, tal processo aproveita nutrientes e corantes naturais, importantes para agregar valor a vários alimentos

Made available in DSpace on 2017-05-12T14:47:38Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Claudia_ Moura (Tese revisada) (1).pdf: 3911895 bytes, checksum: 0a37c7fb902019cf109ae32f1afc5dde (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-05 / Jabuticaba tree (Plinia sp.) is a native species that has been widely distributed in almost all regions of Brazil. Recently, different native fruits, including jabuticaba, have been a research aim in order to investigate the best benefit of its nutritional properties. In order to arouse new alternatives for better utilization of agro-industrial by-products with nutritional and functional properties, researchers are seeking to develop innovative and functional bioactive products. By this angle, this study aimed at evaluating whether different jabuticaba juice extraction processes applied to obtain peels interfered on its nutritional properties as well as on the subsequent dehydration in order to turn a nutrient-rich residue, agro-industrial benefitted, in a food product that can be attractive to the consumer, as well as easy to be handled, stored and transported. Thus, this study was divided into three phases: the first one was divided according to the acquisition of jabuticaba fruits, from two identified genotypes as: one genotype as acquired in Clevelândia farm (25°07'20" S and 52°19'15" W) and the other genotype from Verê farm (25°53'1'' S: 52° 55' 11'' W). The fruits underwent through extraction process by crushing and forced steam to obtain peels. Subsequently, peels were submitted to dehydration process in an oven with forced air circulation at 70 °C. Then, after being dehydrated, they were ground and sieved to an 80-mesh size to obtain powder. Analyses were carried out to evaluate the influence of these processes in bioactive compounds and their variations based on samples of fresh jabuticaba peels from each genotype, since they underwent through the extraction process and then dehydration. This research was based on physicochemical analyses of hydroalcoholic extracts of samples. Centesimal composition parameters were evaluated: total soluble solids (TSS), titratable acidity, pH, ash, fiber, protein and moisture content, bioactive compounds (phenols, flavonoids and anthocyanins) and antioxidant activity (DPPH, ABTS and FRAP). The way jabuticaba peel was extracted (fresh or dried - powder) did not influence the obtained physicochemical results, or antioxidant activities measured by ABTS and FRAP. Jabuticaba peels of both studied genotypes, extracted by crushing, showed the best contents concerning flavonoids, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity by DPPH method. Jabuticaba peels of Clevelândia genotype showed the highest antioxidant content, flavonoids, phenolic, ABTS and FRAP. In the second moment of this trial, there was some effect of storage in anthocyanin content, antioxidant activity according to three different methods (DPPH, FRAP and ABTS), flavonoids, phenolic and physicochemical characteristics (moisture content, total acidity, pH, ashes, protein and fiber) of such waste powder (to obtain jabuticaba peel powder from both genotypes, extracted by steam and crushing). They also were vacuum packed and stored for 135 days. It was observed that the extraction by crushing showed the best results for DPPH activity according to the storage time and jabuticaba peel from Clevelândia genotype showed the highest antioxidant activity when compared to Verê genotype at the start time and over 135 storage days. Likewise this time has not changed, parameters as acidity and total protein content were obtained in both genotypes and their different extraction processes of jabuticaba powder peel. For the third phase, two evaluated waste samples were selected in phases I and II, which powder peel of Clevelândia genotype was extracted by forced-steam process (GCLV) while powder peel of Verê genotype was extracted by crushing (GVRE). Then, microbiological analyses were carried out (coliforms at 45 °C g-1, Salmonella spp. 25g-1 and yeasts and molds) with natural yogurt and selected powder peels of jabuticaba. Subsequently, four formulations were prepared and two of them were for each genotype: 3.6% GCLV and 1.8% GCLV while two ratios were for (3.6% / 1.8%) GVRE samples. The formulations were submitted to sensorial analyses of acceptability, purchase intent, frequency and reason for the evaluated product consumption, with 100 untrained consumers. The quality of jabuticaba peel color (Verê/Clevelândia genotypes) in powder was also evaluated after extraction xi (steam/crushing), and a*, b*, L*, C*, H* and Δab* color coordinates were analyzed. The dehydrated product and yogurt showed a low counting for filamentous fungi, yeasts, thermotolerant coliforms and absence of Salmonella spp., which indicates some good processing conditions. The addition of jabuticaba peel powder in yogurt resulted in good acceptance for samples such as 1.8g GCLV; 3.6g GCLV and 1.8g GVRE, whose answers varied from: I liked moderately and I liked very much . These samples received results of good intention to buy samples such as 1.8g GCLV, 3.6g GCLV and 1.8g GVRE. Concerning color, there was no effect on the quality of jabuticaba peel powder up to 135 storage days. Generally, the obtained peels by crushing showed the highest contents of flavonoids, phenolic compounds and antioxidant activity by DPPH method. Therefore, antioxidants of this product in yogurt is a promising alternative, since the results showed good rates for both genotypes and extraction treatments (steam/crushing). Wherefore, this process not only provides some proper disposal for waste but also uses important nutrients and natural dyes to add value to several kinds of foodstuff. / A jabuticabeira (Plinia sp.) é uma espécie nativa que se encontra amplamente distribuída em quase todas as regiões brasileiras. Recentemente, diferentes frutos nativos, entre eles a jabuticaba, têm sido alvo de pesquisa para investigar o melhor aproveitamento de suas propriedades nutricionais. Com perspectivas de trazer novas alternativas para o melhor aproveitamento de subprodutos agroindustriais que tenham propriedades nutritivas e funcionais, pesquisadores estão buscando o desenvolvimento de produtos inovadores e funcionais (bioativos). Por esse viés, este trabalho objetivou avaliar se diferentes processos de extração de suco de jabuticaba para obtenção das cascas interferiam nas suas propriedades nutritivas bem como na posterior desidratação, com o intuito de transformar um resíduo rico em nutrientes, aproveitado agroindustrialmente, em um produto alimentício atrativo para o consumidor, além da facilidade de manuseio, armazenamento e transporte. Sendo assim, este estudo foi dividido em três fases: a primeira com a aquisição dos frutos de jabuticabeira, de dois genótipos, identificados como genótipo adquirido no sítio em Clevelândia ( 25°07 20 S e 52°19 15 W,) e genótipo do sítio em Verê (25° 53' 1'' S: 52° 55' 11'' W). Os frutos passaram pelo processo de extração por esmagamento e por vapor forçado, para obtenção da casca. Na sequência, foram submetidas ao processo de desidratação em estufa com circulação forçada de ar a 70 °C. Depois de desidratadas foram moídas e peneiradas com granulometria 80 mesh para obtenção do pó. Foram realizadas análises para avaliar a influência desses processos nos compostos bioativos e suas variações nas amostras das cascas frescas de jabuticaba dos genótipos, ao passarem pelos processos de extrações e em seguida desidratação. Esta investigação decorreu a partir de análises físico-químicas dos extratos hidroalcoólicos das amostras. Foram avaliados os parâmetros da composição centesimal: sólidos solúveis totais (SST), acidez titulável, pH, cinzas, fibras, proteínas e grau de umidade, compostos bioativos (fenóis, flavonoides e antocianinas) e atividade antioxidante (DPPH, ABTS e FRAP). O tipo de extração da casca de jabuticaba fresca ou desidratada (em pó) não influenciou nos resultados físico-químicos, nem para as atividades antioxidantes medidas por ABTS e FRAP. As cascas de jabuticaba de ambos genótipos, extraídas por esmagamento, apresentaram melhores índices de flavonoides, fenólicos e atividade antioxidante pelo método DPPH. As cascas de jabuticabas do genótipo Clevelândia apresentaram maior teor de antioxidante, flavonoides, fenólicos, ABTS e FRAP. Na segunda fase do trabalho verificou-se o efeito do armazenamento, nos conteúdos de antocianinas, atividade antioxidante por três métodos distintos (DPPH, FRAP e ABTS), flavonoides, fenólicos e características físico-químicas (teor de umidade, acidez titulável, pH e cinzas proteína e fibra) do pó destes resíduos (obtenção da casca de jabuticaba em pó de dois genótipos, extraídos a vapor e esmagamento), embalados a vácuo e armazenados por 135 dias. Observou-se que a extração por esmagamento apresentou melhores resultados para atividade de DPPH em função do tempo de armazenamento e que a casca de jabuticaba do genótipo Clevelândia apresentou maior atividade antioxidante em relação à casca do genótipo Verê, no tempo inicial e ao longo de 135 dias de armazenamento. Além deste tempo não ter sido alterado, foram obtidos os parâmetros de acidez e teor de proteína totais em ambos genótipos e seus distintos processos de extrações da casca de jabuticaba em pó. Para fase três, foram selecionados dois dos resíduos avaliados nas fases I e II, cujo pó da casca de jabuticaba do genótipo de Clevelândia foi extraído pelo processo a vapor (GCLV) e o pó da casca de jabuticaba do genótipo de Verê foi extraído por esmagamento (GVRE). Em seguida, foram realizadas análises microbiológicas (coliformes a 45°C g-1, Salmonella spp. 25g-1 e bolores e leveduras) com o iogurte natural e com a cascas de jabuticaba em pó, selecionadas. Na sequência, foram elaboradas quatro formulações sendo duas para cada genótipo: GCLV ix 3,6% e GCLV 1,8% e duas proporções para as amostras, GVRE (3,6% e 1,8%). As formulações foram submetidas às análises sensorial de aceitabilidade, intenção de compra, frequência e motivo do consumo do produto avaliado, contando com 100 consumidores não treinados. Também foi avaliada a qualidade da cor das cascas de jabuticaba (genótipo Verê/Clevelândia) em pó após extrações (vapor/esmagamento), e foram analisadas as coordenadas de cor a*, b*, L*, C*, H* e Δab*. O produto desidratado e o iogurte apresentaram baixa contagem para fungos filamentosos, leveduras, coliformes termotolerantes e ausência de Salmonella spp., indicando boas condições de processamento. A adição da casca de jabuticaba em pó, no iogurte, resultou em boa aceitação para as amostras GCLV 1,8g; GCLV 3,6 g e GVRE 1,8g situando-se entre o termo gostei moderadamente e gostei muito. As mesmas obtiveram resultados de boa intenção de compra para as amostras GCLV 1,8g; GCLV 3,6 g e GVRE 1,8g. Na cor, a casca de jabuticaba em pó não teve a qualidade afetada até 135 dias de armazenamento. De forma geral, as cascas obtidas por esmagamento apresentaram melhores índices de flavonoides, fenólicos e atividade antioxidante pelo método DPPH. Portanto, os antioxidantes desse produto em iogurte é uma alternativa promissora, visto que obtiveram resultados com bons índices para ambos genótipos e tratamentos de extração (vapor/esmagamento). Logo, além de dar destinação adequada a um resíduo, tal processo aproveita nutrientes e corantes naturais, importantes para agregar valor a vários alimentos

Title from second page of PDF document. Includes bibliographical references.

Τα φύλλα κάποιων φυτών γίνονται παροδικά κόκκινα, λόγω της συσσώρευσης ανθοκυανινών. Εξετάστηκαν δύο από τις πολλές υποθέσεις που έχουν διατυπωθεί για το ρόλο των χρωστικών αυτών στα φύλλα: ο φωτοπροστατευτικός τους ρόλος και η εμπλοκή τους στις σχέσεις φυτών και φυτοφάγων εντόμων. Χρησιμοποιήθηκαν δύο είδη φυτών (Quercus coccifera και Cistus creticus) τα οποία παρουσιάζουν ενδοειδική ποικιλομορφία όσον αφορά στη συσσώρευση ανθοκυανινών στα φύλλα τους. Στο Q. coccifera, τα νεαρά φύλλα κάποιων ατόμων είναι κόκκινα και κάποιων άλλων πράσινα, ενώ κατά την ενηλικίωση τους γίνονται όλα πράσινα. Τα ώριμα φύλλα του C. creticus το καλοκαίρι είναι πράσινα (“πράσινη” περίοδος) αλλά συσσωρεύονται παροδικά ανθοκυανίνες στα ώριμα φύλλα κάποιων θάμνων κατά τη περίοδο του χειμώνα (“κόκκινη” περίοδος), ενώ γειτονικά άτομα παραμένουν πράσινα. Συγκρίθηκαν παράμετροι του in vivo φθορισμού της χλωροφύλλης, τα επίπεδα των συστατικών του κύκλου των ξανθοφυλλών και των ολικών φαινολικών, τα φάσματα ανακλαστικότητας και η ένταση της φυτοφαγίας, σε κόκκινα και πράσινα φύλλα από αντίστοιχους φαινοτύπους που αναπτυσσόντουσαν στο ίδιο ενδιαίτημα. Δεν διαπιστώθηκε κάποιο συγκριτικό πλεονέκτημα (ή μειονέκτημα) των ανθοκυανικών φύλλων όσον αφορά στη φωτοσυνθετική τους λειτουργία ή στην ανθεκτικότητά τους έναντι της φωτοαναστολής, στις συνθήκες που αναπτύσσονται. Στα διαφορετικού χρώματος, νεαρά φύλλα του Q. coccifera, είναι σαν να γίνεται ένας “συμβιβασμός” όπου στα κόκκινα φύλλα φτάνει λιγότερο φως στους χλωροπλάστες (ή/και λειτουργούν οι ανθοκυανίνες ως αντιοξειδωτικά), ενώ τα πράσινα φύλλα έχουν μεγαλύτερη δυνατότητα για μη φωτοχημική απόσβεση λόγω μεγαλύτερης συγκέντρωσης συστατικών του κύκλου των ξανθοφυλλών. Στο C. creticus, κατά την “πράσινη” περίοδο τα μελλοντικά ερυθρά φύλλα παρουσιάζουν φωτοσυνθετική και φωτοπροστατευτική κατωτερότητα, σε σχέση με τα φύλλα του πράσινου φαινοτύπου, που όμως δεν τους δημιουργεί πρόβλημα, όσο οι περιβαλλοντικές συνθήκες είναι ευνοϊκές. Κατά τη δυσμενή εποχή του χειμώνα, τα πράσινα φύλλα αυξάνουν την ικανότητα τους για μη φωτοχημική απόσβεση, ενώ τα κόκκινα όχι. Μπορεί σε αυτή την περίπτωση οι ανθοκυανίνες να αποτελούν μια προσαρμογή ώστε να αντισταθμίζεται αυτή η κατωτερότητα και να μειώνεται ο κίνδυνος φωτοαναστολής. Ωστόσο, τα νεαρά κόκκινα φύλλα του C. coccifera, είχαν υποστεί λιγότερες απώλειες από φυτοφάγα. Η μη ύπαρξη διακυμάνσεων στο φάσμα ανακλαστικότητας των κόκκινων φύλλων στην περιοχή 400-700 nm, σε συνδυασμό με τις δυνατότητες της χρωματικής όρασης πολλών φυτοφάγων εντόμων, υποδεικνύει ότι τα ερυθρά φύλλα πιθανόν να μην μπορούν εύκολα να εντοπιστούν από τους θηρευτές τους. Επίσης, κάποια φυλλοβόρα έντομα μπορεί να αποφεύγουν τα κόκκινα φύλλα, γιατί εκεί γίνονται περισσότερο ευδιάκριτα από τα αρπακτικά. Η αυξημένη συγκέντρωση των κόκκινων φύλλων σε φαινολικά μπορεί να αποθαρρύνει την περεταίρω κατανάλωση μετά από τυχαία προσέγγιση. / Leaves of some plants are transiently red due to anthocyanin accumulation. Among the many hypotheses for the function of foliar anthocyanins, two are tested in this field study: the sun screen, photoprotective function against excess visible light and the handicap signal against herbivory. Two plant species (Quercus coccifera and Cistus creticus) were used which display intraspecies variation in the expression of the anthocyanic character. Young leaves of some individuals of Q. cocifera are transiently red due to anthocyanin accumulation, while redness disappears upon maturation. Mature leaves of C. creticus are green during summer (“green” period) but in some individuals they turn transiently to red during winter (“red” period), while neighboring individuals remain green. In vivo chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, xanthophyll cycle pool sizes, reflectance spectra, total phenolics and extent of herbivory were compared in green and red leaves sampled from the corresponding phenotypes occupying the same habitat. An appreciable photosynthetic and photoprotective superiority (or inferiority) of anthocyanic leaves in both plant species under field conditions was not found. It seems that there is a compromise in differently coloured young leaves of Q. coccifera where red leaf chloroplasts enjoy less light due to its attenuation by anthocyanins (and/or anthocyanins participate in photoprotection through their anti-oxidant capacity) while green leaf chloroplasts are better equipped to dissipate excess light as heat through their higher size of xanthophyll cycle pool. During the “green” period, future red leaves of C. creticus show photosynthetic and photoprotective inferiority compared to the leaves of the green phenotype which is possibly insignificant for plant performance during the favourable period of the year. During the winter stress green leaves increase their ability for non-photochemical quenching while red phenotypes do not. In this case, anthocyanins may be an adaptation to compensate for this deficiency and alleviate the risk of photodamage. However, young red leaves of Q. coccifera are less attacked by insect consumers. The leveling of reflectance in anthocyanic leaves throughout the 400-570 nm band together with the spectral discriminating capabilities of leaf eating insects, may make red leaves less discernible to some insects. Furthermore, some insect herbivores may avoid red leaves because there are more discernible to predators. Incidental attack may be a posteriori discouraged due to the high phenolic investment of red leaves.

Στα φύλλα κάποιων φυτικών ειδών παρουσιάζεται παροδική ερυθρότητα, λόγω συσσώρευσης ανθοκυανινών, η οποία μπορεί να είναι τόσο έντονη που να καλύπτεται το χρώμα της χλωροφύλλης. Δεδομένου ότι απορροφούν και στο ορατό φάσμα (κυρίως στην πράσινη και ελαφρώς στη μπλε και κίτρινη περιοχή) οι ανθοκυανίνες πρακτικώς λειτουργούν ως φίλτρα, αφού απορροφούν μέρος της προσπίπτουσας φωτοσυνθετικά ενεργής ακτινοβολίας και ανταγωνίζονται τις χλωροφύλλες στην απορρόφηση του φωτός. Εξ αιτίας αυτής της ιδιότητάς τους, ένας από τους ρόλους που τους έχει αποδοθεί είναι η φωτοπροστατευτική δράση, ενώ παράλληλα (και ανεξαρτήτως ρόλου που επιτελούν) έχει προταθεί ότι διαμορφώνουν ένα ιδιαίτερο μικροπεριβάλλον σκιάς στο εσωτερικό του φύλλου. Προκειμένου να διερευνηθεί η πιθανή συνεισφορά των ανθοκυανινών στη φωτοπροστασία αλλά και στην επαγωγή σκιόφιλων χαρακτήρων, στην παρούσα διατριβή παρακολουθήσαμε την πορεία των φωτοσυνθετικών και φωτοπροστατευτικών χαρακτηριστικών, παράλληλα με τη μεταβολή της ερυθρότητας, σε φύλλα του ίδιου είδους που διαφέρουν ως προς το ανθοκυανικό περιεχόμενο. Εξετάστηκαν πέντε είδη, τρία ως κύρια πειραματόφυτα (Cistus creticus L., Photinia x fraseri Dress και Quercus coccifera L.) και δύο ως συμπληρωματικά στον προσδιορισμό της στοιχειομετρίας των δύο φωτοσυστημάτων (Ricinus communis L., Rosa sp. L.). Στο C. creticus, η παροδική ερυθρότητα εμφανίζεται στα ώριμα φύλλα και σχετίζεται με αβιοτικούς περιβαλλοντικούς παράγοντες, συγκεκριμένα το συνδυασμό χαμηλών θερμοκρασιών και υψηλών εντάσεων φωτός. Στα υπόλοιπα, η παροδική συσσώρευση ανθοκυανινών επάγεται από οντογενετικούς παράγοντες (νεαρά κόκκινα φύλλα που πρασινίζουν με την ωρίμανση). Στα P. x fraseri και R. communis, η χρωματική ποικιλομορφία αφορά φύλλα διαφορετικής ηλικίας, που ανήκουν όμως στο ίδιο άτομο (νεαρά κόκκινα-ώριμα πράσινα). Tα υπόλοιπα τρία είδη εμφανίζουν ενδο-ειδική ποικιλομορφία ως προς τον ανθοκυανικό χαρακτήρα, και επομένως συγκρίνονται φύλλα ίδιας κάθε φορά φυσιολογικής ηλικίας, που ανήκουν σε άτομα διαφορετικών φαινοτύπων. Στην περίπτωση που οι ανθοκυανίνες λειτουργούν φωτοπροστατευτικά, αναμένεται τα φύλλα που τις περιέχουν να αντιμετωπίζουν μικρότερο κίνδυνο φωτοαναστολής και να έχουν μικρότερη ανάγκη για μη-φωτοχημική απόσβεση σε σύγκριση με τα αντίστοιχα πράσινα. Ωστόσο, από τις μετρήσεις του in vivo φθορισμού της χλωροφύλλης σε προ-σκοτεινιασμένα δείγματα (OJIP-ανάλυση) δεν διαπιστώθηκε τα ανθοκυανικά φύλλα να διαθέτουν κάποιο συγκριτικό πλεονέκτημα όσον αφορά στη φωτοσυνθετική τους λειτουργία. Αντιθέτως, τα κόκκινα φύλλα των ειδών P. x fraseri και C. creticus εκτός του ότι παρουσιάζουν ελαφρώς, αλλά στατιστικώς σημαντικά, χαμηλότερες τιμές μέγιστης φωτοχημικής απόδοσης του PSII (Fv/Fm) συναντούν και σαφώς μεγαλύτερους περιορισμούς στα μετέπειτα στάδια ηλεκτρονιακής ροής και μετατροπής της ενέργειας σε σχέση με τα αντίστοιχα πράσινα. Και στις δυο περιπτώσεις είναι πιθανό να συμβαίνει απενεργοποίηση κάποιων λειτουργικών ενεργών κέντρων του PSII. Στο Q. coccifera, τα όμοιας ηλικίας φύλλα των δύο φαινοτύπων δεν παρουσιάζουν διαφορές στις ανωτέρω παραμέτρους. Οι μετρήσεις φθορισμού της χλωροφύλλης κάτω από συνθήκες ακτινικού φωτός έδειξαν ότι τα κόκκινα φύλλα έχουν όμοιες (P. x fraseri και C. creticus) ή χαμηλότερες (Q. coccifera) τιμές τρέχουσας φωτοχημικής απόδοσης (YII) και αντίστοιχα όμοιες ή υψηλότερες τιμές μη-φωτοχημικής απόσβεσης (YNPQ). Ωστόσο, λόγω της απορρόφησης των ανθοκυανινών, οι χλωροπλάστες των κόκκινων φύλλων δέχονται πραγματική ένταση φωτός χαμηλότερη της προσπίπτουσας, και επομένως τα ανωτέρω αποτελέσματα είναι αντίθετα των αναμενόμενων. Διαφωτιστικές προς αυτή την κατεύθυνση είναι οι μετρήσεις φθορισμού της κάτω (πράσινης) φυλλικής επιφάνειας σε φωτιζόμενα φύλλα των δύο φαινοτύπων του C. creticus. Σ’ αυτήν την περίπτωση, έχοντας παρακάμψει το πρόβλημα της απορρόφησης των ανθοκυανινών, τα φύλλα του κόκκινου φαινοτύπου εμφανίζουν υψηλότερη ανάγκη μη-φωτοχημικής απόσβεσης (YNPQ) και υψηλότερη ευαισθησία έναντι της φωτοαναστολής (YNΟ), παρ’ όλη τη θεωρούμενη προστασία των υπερκείμενων ανθοκυανινών της άνω επιφανείας. Η μεγαλύτερη ανάγκη μη φωτοχημικής απόσβεσης των κόκκινων φύλλων διαφαίνεται και από την υψηλότερη επένδυση σε συστατικά του κύκλου των ξανθοφυλλών (P. x fraseri) ή την καλύτερη λειτουργικότητα του κύκλου (C. creticus), σε συνθήκες έντονου φωτισμού. Μάλιστα, κατά την καταπονητική περίοδο του χειμώνα ο κόκκινος φαινότυπος του C. creticus εμφανίζει μείωση των περιεχομένων χλωροφυλλών, πιθανόν σε μια προσπάθεια περαιτέρω ελάττωσης της απορροφούμενης ενέργειας διεγέρσεως, παρ’ όλη την ύπαρξη του ανθοκυανικού φίλτρου. Με βάση τα ανωτέρω ευρήματα, η υπόθεση του φωτοπροστατευτικού ρόλου των ανθοκυανινών δεν ενισχύεται, εκτός εάν υποτεθεί είτε ότι ο στόχος για την προστασία δεν συνδέεται με τη φωτοσύνθεση είτε ότι τα κόκκινα φύλλα εάν δεν τις διέθεταν θα ήταν σε πολύ πιο δυσμενή θέση, σε σύγκριση πάντα με τα πράσινα. Όσον αφορά στη συνεισφορά των ανθοκυανινών στην επαγωγή σκιόφιλων χαρακτήρων βρέθηκαν κάποιες ισχυρές ενδείξεις προς αυτήν την κατεύθυνση, ανεξάρτητα από τον παράγοντα που επάγει τη συσσώρευσή τους. Έτσι, και στα πέντε είδη που εξετάστηκαν, παρατηρήθηκε αύξηση της σχετικής αναλογίας PSII/PSI στα κόκκινα φύλλα, η οποία είναι στατιστικά σημαντική (εκτός από την περίπτωση του Q. coccifera) και βαίνει μειούμενη με τη μείωση των περιεχομένων ανθοκυανινών. Αύξηση της αναλογίας PSII/PSI έχει συσχετισθεί με την ποιοτική αλλοίωση του φωτός σε συνθήκες σκιάς και στοχεύει στην εξισορροπημένη διέγερση των δύο φωτοσυστημάτων. Από τον τρόπο προσδιορισμού της (ως F686/F735), η ανωτέρω αναλογία δεν κάνει διάκριση μεταξύ φωτοσυλλεκτικής κεραίας και ενεργών κέντρων των δύο φωτοσυστημάτων. Μία άλλη παράμετρος, που θεωρείται τυπικός δείκτης σκιοφιλίας και μετρήθηκε στο σύνολο των πειραματοφύτων, είναι η αναλογία Chl a/b. Μειωμένη αναλογία Chl a/b σε συνθήκες σκιάς υποδεικνύει αύξηση των φωτοσυλλεκτικών κεραιών σε σχέση με τα ενεργά κέντρα. Στατιστικά σημαντική μείωση της ανωτέρω αναλογίας βρέθηκε στα κόκκινα φύλλα των ειδών C. creticus, Q. coccifera και Rosa sp.. Στα P. x fraseri και R. communis δεν παρατηρήθηκαν στατιστικά σημαντικές διαφορές μεταξύ κόκκινων και πράσινων φύλλων. Τέλος, στα είδη C. creticus, P. x fraseri και Q. coccifera προσδιορίσθηκε και η παράμετρος ABS/RC (όπως προκύπτει από την OJIP-ανάλυση), όπου παρατηρήθηκε στατιστικώς σημαντική αύξηση στα κόκκινα φύλλα των δύο πρώτων ειδών. Στο Q. coccifera η ίδια τάση δεν είναι στατιστικά σημαντική. Αύξηση της αναλογίας ABS/RC, η οποία αποτελεί θα λέγαμε έναν λειτουργικό περισσότερο δείκτη, μπορεί να αποδοθεί σε αυξημένο μέγεθος της φωτοσυλλεκτικής κεραίας ή/και σε μείωση του αριθμού των λειτουργικών ενεργών κέντρων του PSII. Από το συνδυασμό των παραπάνω αποτελεσμάτων διαφαίνεται ότι στα είδη C. creticus, Rosa sp. και Q. coccifera η επίδραση των ανθοκυανινών εντοπίζεται κυρίως σε αύξηση του μεγέθους της φωτοσυλλεκτικής κεραίας. Στα P. x fraseri και R. communis, η αύξηση του λόγου PSII/PSI αντανακλά πιθανώς μια αύξηση των ενεργών κέντρων του PSII. / Leaves of some plant species appear transiently red because of the accumulation of anthocyanins, at levels sufficient to mask the green chlorophyll color. Given that leaf anthocyanins absorb also in the visible spectrum (strongly in the green and less in the blue-violet and yellow region), they act as sunscreens attenuating part of the photosynthetically active radiation and hence they compete with chlorophylls for photon capture. Due to this attribute, one of the ascribed roles of leaf anthocyanins is the photoprotection of the photosynthetic mesophyll. Additionally (and regardless of the proposed role) it has been suggested that they shape a particular shade microenvironment in the leaf interior. In order to investigate these two hypotheses, in the present study we monitored the course of photosynthetic and photoprotective characteristics in leaves of the same species with different anthocyanic content. Five species have been used, three of them as main experimental material (Cistus creticus L., Photinia x fraseri Dress και Quercus coccifera L.) and two additional (Ricinus communis L., Rosa sp. L.) for the assessment of the stoichiometry of the two photosystems. In Cistus creticus (L.) transient redness is induced in mature leaves by abiotic environmental factors, i.e. the combination of low temperatures and high light intensity during winter. In the rest species redness is developmentally determined (young red leaves which become red upon maturation). In P. x fraseri and R. communis the color variation concerns leaves of different age from the same individual (comparison of young red and mature green). The rest three species show intra-species variation of the anthocyanic trait. Thus, leaves of the same physiological age from different individuals and phenotypes (occupying the same habitat) were compared. The photoprotective hypothesis of leaf anthocyanins entails that red leaves would be less sensitive against photoinhibition and have a reduced need of non-photochemical quenching, compared to their green counterparts. However, according to our chlorophyll fluorescence measurements with dark adapted samples (OJIP-analysis), anthocyanic leaves did not display a comparative advantage in their photosynthetic function. On the contrary, red leaves of P. x fraseri and C. creticus, apart from their slightly, yet statistically significant, lower maximum PSII yield (Fv/Fm), they also confront higher limitations in the further steps of excitation energy processing and its transformation compared to greens. In both species, a transformation of active PSII centers to non-QA -reducing ones, could be inferred. In Q. coccifera, no differences were observed between leaves of the same physiological age from the two phenotypes in the above parameters. Moreover, chlorophyll fluorescence measurements in light acclimated samples have shown that red leaves have similar (P. x fraseri και C. creticus) or lower (Q. coccifera) PSII effective yield (YII) and similar or higher corresponding non-photochemical energy quenching (YNPQ). It has to be noted, however, that the actual PAR levels penetrating to the red leaf mesophyll are in fact lower compared to their green counterparts, due to anthocyanin absorption of the white and blue actinic light used during these measurements. Accordingly, for the same incident PAR, the opposite trend was expected in red leaves. In C. creticus, measurements performed in the lower leaf side by-pass this problem, since anthocyanins accumulate only in the palisade mesophyll (of the upper side) and the abaxial leaf surface is always green. In that case, red leaves showed a higher need for non-photochemical quenching (YNPQ) and a higher vulnerability to photoinhibition (YNΟ), in spite of the supposed photoprotective function of the overlying anthocyanins. The trend for an enhanced need of non-photochemical dissipation in red leaves is indicated also by the higher investment in “xanthophyll cycle” components (P. x fraseri) and/or the lower EPS values (P. x fraseri and C. creticus) during midday. In addition, during the superimposed winter stress, red leaves of C. creticus proceed to a Chl loss, possibly as an attempt to decrease further the absorbed excitation energy, in spite of the anthocyanic screen. The above results weaken the photoprotective hypothesis for leaf anthocyanins, unless it is assumed either that photosynthesis is not the target for protection or that red leaves would be in a worse position, compared to greens, if anthocyanins were absent. Some of our results support the shade acclimation hypothesis in red leaves, irrespectively of the factor that induces the accumulation of anthocyanins. In all tested species, red leaves display a higher, statistically significant, relative PSII/PSI ratio compared to greens (except of Q. coccifera, where the same was observed as a trend). PSII/PSI ratio declines in parallel with the decrease of anthocyanin accumulation. A higher PSII/PSI ratio is considered as an acclimation to the altered light quality under shade conditions in order to adjust the excitation pressure of two photosystems. Chl a/b was statistically lower in red leaves of C. creticus, Q. coccifera και Rosa sp., while in P. x fraseri and R. communis no differences were observed. A decrease in Chl a/b ratio is a typical shade acclimation feature, indicating an increased ratio of light harvesting antennae per reaction center. Finally, another parameter indicative of shade acclimation is the mean antenna size (calculated as ABS/RC ratio), which was considerably higher in red leaves of C. creticus and P. x fraseri (again in Q. coccifera only a similar trend was observed). Yet, according to the JIP-analysis the antenna size is expressed per active RC, hence the increased ABS/RC ratio could be the combined effect of an increase in the antenna size and a decrease in active PSII centers. The combination of the above results indicates that anthocyanin accumulation in C. creticus, Rosa sp. and Q. coccifera contributes mainly to a higher relative size of LHC. In the case of P. x fraseri and R. communis, the enhanced PSII/PSI ratio of red leaves reflects rather an increase of PSII centers.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Ultraviolet light type C (UV-C) is a non-thermal technology that has been used as an abiotic stressor to delay microbial growth and enhance the phytochemical content of food crops. However, its effects may vary depending on the cultivar, fruit, hormetic dose and time after exposure. Isabella is a hybrid grape cultivar (Vitis labrusca L.) that represents about 50% of Brazilian grape production and is commonly consumed in natura. The effects of UV-C irradiation (0.5, 1.0, 2.0, and 4.0 kJ m-2) followed by storage at 20°C (1, 3, and 5 days) were evaluated on quality indicators, bioactive compounds, antioxidant capacity and phenylalanine ammonia lyase (PAL) activity of Isabella grapes. The highest UV-C doses (2.0 and 4.0 kJ m-2) led to a rapid increase (about 10%) of total soluble solids (TSS) and decrease of pH values (p<0.05). All samples showed an increase on total phenolics (813.6 ± 99.6 in the 1st day vs. 1016.4 ± 79.6 mg gallic acid equivalents 100 g-1 skin FW in the 5th day), flavonols (351.1 ± 58.4 in the 1st day vs. 496.9 ± 83.1 mg quercetin-3-rutinoside equivalents 100 g-1 skin FW in the 5th day), and anthocyanins (215.3 ± 35.4 in the 1st day vs. 272.2 ± 43.5 mg malvidin-3-glucoside equivalents 100 g-1 skin FW in the 5th day) content along the storage (p<0.05). Total phenolic compounds increased after UV-C at 1.0 and 2.0 kJ m-2, whereas anthocyanin content increased after UV-C at 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 kJ m-2 (p<0.05). The levels of ascorbic acid (AA) and total vitamin C decreased in all samples during the storage (p<0.05). UV-C treatment had no effect on the flavonol content, but decreased AA and total vitamin C content (0.5 - 2.0 kJ m-2, p<0.05). PAL activity decreased along storage time in all samples (47.7 ± 3.6 in the 1st day vs. 38.4 ± 2.7 and 32.4 ± 2.1 104 EAU min-1 mg protein-1 in 3rd and 5th days after treatment, p<0.05). UV-C radiation (0.5-2.0 kJ m-2) increased PAL enzyme activity in two-fold relation to control. UV-C treated grapes had higher antioxidant capacity than control grapes in the ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assays (p<0.05). Indeed, this effect was positively correlated to the content of total phenolic and anthocyanin compounds and negatively correlated to ascorbic acid and vitamin C contents (p<0.05). Thus, UV-C radiation can be used to increase bioactive compounds and antioxidant capacity of Isabella grapes, being 1.0 kJ m-2 the most appropriate dose for the studied conditions. UV-C effects appeared immediately after the irradiation and gradually decreased along the storage. / A radiação ultravioleta do tipo C (UV-C) é uma tecnologia não-térmica que está sendo usada como um estressor abiótico para retardar o crescimento microbiano e aumentar o teor de fitoquímicos em culturas de alimentos. No entanto, seus efeitos podem variar dependendo da fruta, da cultivar, da dose hormética e do tempo após a exposição. A Isabel é uma cultivar híbrida de uva (Vitis labrusca L.) que representa cerca de 50% da produção brasileira de uvas e é amplamente usada para consumo in natura. Foram avaliados os efeitos da irradiação com UV-C (0.5, 1.0, 2.0 e 4.0 kJ m-2) seguida pelo armazenamento a 20°C (1, 3 e 5 dias) sobre indicadores de qualidade, compostos bioativos, capacidade antioxidante e atividade da fenilalanina amônia liase (FAL) de uvas Isabel . As maiores doses (2.0 e 4.0 kJ m-2) levaram a um rápido aumento dos sólidos solúveis totais (SST) (cerca de 10%) e a um decréscimo dos valores de pH (p<0,05). Todas as amostras apresentaram um aumento no teor de fenólicos totais (813,6 ± 99,6 no 1° dia vs. 1016,4 ± 79,6 mg ácido gálico 100 g-1 casca em peso fresco no 5° dia), flavonois (351,1 ± 58,4 no 1° dia vs. 496,9 ± 83,1 mg quercetina-3-rutinosídeo 100 g-1 casca em peso fresco no 5° dia) e antocianinas (215,3 ± 35,4 no 1° dia vs. 272,2 ± 43,5 mg malvidina-3-glicosídeo 100 g-1 casca em peso fresco no 5° dia) ao longo do armazenamento (p<0,05). Os compostos fenólicos totais aumentaram após a irradiação com UV-C nas doses de 1.0 e 2.0 kJ m-2, enquanto o teor de antocianinas aumentou após irradiação com as doses 0,5, 1.0 e 2.0 kJ m-2 (p<0,05). Os teores de ácido ascórbico (AA) e vitamina C total diminuíram em todas as amostras durante o armazenamento (p<0,05). O tratamento com UV-C não teve efeito sobre o teor de flavonois, mas diminuiu o teor de AA e vitamina C total (0,5-2.0 kJ m-2, p<0,05). A atividade da FAL diminuiu ao longo do armazenamento em todas as amostras (47,7 ± 3,6 no 1° dia vs. 38,4 ± 2,7 e 32,4 ± 2,1 104 EAU min-1 mg proteína-1 no 3° e 5° dias após o tratamento, p<0,05). A radiação UV-C (0,5-2.0 kJ m-2) aumentou a atividade da enzima FAL em 2 vezes em relação ao controle. As uvas tratadas com UV-C tiveram maior capacidade antioxidante nos ensaios do poder antioxidante de redução do ferro (FRAP) e de remoção do radical 2,2-difenil-1-picril-hidrazil (DPPH) que as uvas controle (p<0,05). Além disso, este efeito antioxidante foi positivamente correlacionado ao teor de compostos fenólicos totais e antocianinas e negativamente correlacionado ao teor de ácido ascórbico e vitamina C total (p<0,05). Assim, a radiação UV-C pode ser usada para aumentar o teor de compostos bioativos e a capacidade antioxidante de uvas Isabel , sendo 1.0 kJ m-2 a dose mais apropriada nas condições estudadas. Os efeitos da UV-C apareceram imediatamente após a irradiação e diminuíram gradualmente ao longo do armazenamento.