The landfilling of slag obtained from the high alloyed Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) steel making process, constitutes an environmental treat for society as well as an economical problem for the companies producing it, due to the costs related to waste management practices. Conventional methods of slag recycling are abundantly used among the steelmaking business, but due to their particular physical properties, high- alloyed EAF slags cannot be properly valorized. Moreover, the pickling process that high-alloyed EAF steels undergo to, generates acidic wastewaters, that need to be collected and neutralized, before they can be recirculated into the natural water streams. For such a task, steel mills currently utilize slaked lime (a Ca rich mineral) to raise the pH and to remove any metal particles dissolved into the wastewaters. Slag contains high amount of Ca; therefore, it has already been tested as a slaked lime replacement. In fact, previous studies conducted at the Material Science and Engineering department at KTH Royal Institute of Technology showed, on a laboratory scale, that slag has the potential to replace lime for the neutralization and purification of the acidic wastewaters. This Master’s thesis project aims at upscaling the volumes of wastewaters to be tested, about 70 to 90 folds of the one from previous research, bridging the gap between laboratory tests and the industrial scale. The thesis is divided into three tranches, a first part where a water-salt solution conductivity trials were carried out, to model the behavior or slag dispersion in the acidic wastewaters. After the results obtained from the conductivity trials, neutralization trials with slag and the lime product currently in use by the company, were carried out at the neutralization plant in Outokumpu Stainless, Avesta (Sweden). The neutralization trials were carried out with 70 and 90 liters of acidic wastewaters and in order to perform the trials on site, the slag sample was dried and later sieved to a particle size of less than 350μm. Moreover, data was analyzed and compared to previous studies in order to have a clearer understanding regarding the neutralization efficiency of the slag, especially whether or not the technology would had worked on upscaled volumes. Additionally, the project checked if it was possible to find a generalized relationship between the mass of slag and volume of wastewaters required for the neutralization process. Slag demonstrated to be able to buffer the pH to the target values of 9, while also showing an almost linear trend compared to previous studies. The reaction progress between slag, lime, and the acidic wastewaters was also analyzed. / Deponering av slagg som erhållits från den höglegerade ljusbågsugn (EAF) stålframställningsprocessen utgör en miljömässig behandling för samhället och ettekonomiskt problem för de företag som producerar den på grund av kostnaderna för avfallshantering. Konventionella metoder för återvinning av slagg används i storutsträckning bland stålindustrin, men på grund av deras speciella fysiska egenskaper kan höglegerade EAF-slaggen inte värderas ordentligt. Dessutom produceras sura avloppsvatten av betningsprocessen som höglegerade EAF-stål genomgår som sedan måste samlas in och neutraliseras innan de kan återcirkuleras i det naturliga vattnet. För en sådan uppgift använder stålfabriker för närvarande släckt kalk (ett Ca-rikt mineral) för att höja pH-värdet och för att avlägsna alla metallpartiklar som löses upp i avloppsvattnet. Slaggen innehåller hög mängd Ca och därför har den testats som en ersättning till släckt kalk. Tidigare studier utförda vid avdelningen materialvetenskap och teknik vid Kungliga Tekniska Högskola visade på laboratorieskala att slagg har potential att ersätta kalk för neutralisering och rening av sura avloppsvatten. Detta examensarbete syftar till att skala upp volymerna av avloppsvattnet som ska testas till cirka 70–90 gånger av den från tidigare forskning, och därav fylla ut bryggan mellan laboratorietester och industriell skala. Avhandlingen är uppdelad i tre delar, Första delen innehåller försök på ledningsförmåga i en vatten-saltlösning som genomfördes för att modellera beteende eller slaggspridning i sura avloppsvatten. Efter de resultat som erhållits från konduktivitetsmätningarna genomfördes neutraliseringsförsök med slagg och kalk som för närvarande används av företaget vid neutraliseringsanläggningen i Outokumpu Stainless, Avesta (Sverige). Neutraliseringsförsöken genomfördes med 70 och 90 liter sura avloppsvatten och för att utföra experimenten på plats torkades slagg provet och siktades senare till en partikelstorlek på mindre än 350 μm. Dessutom analyserades data och jämfördes med tidigare studier för att få en tydligare förståelse för slaggens neutraliseringseffektivitet, särskilt huruvida tekniken skulle ha fungerat på större volymer, och även om det också var möjligt att hitta ett generaliserat samband mellan mängden slagg och volym avloppsvatten som krävs för neutraliseringsprocessen. Slagget visade sig kunna buffra pH till målvärdena 9, samtidigt som den visade en nästan linjär trend jämfört med tidigare studier. Reaktionsförloppet mellan slaggkalk och de sura avloppsvattnen analyserades också.

Without a doubt, there is a consensus around the international community which suggests that our current way of life is unsustainable for a healthy planet, society and economy. One focal point that should be taken deeply into consideration is the steel industry as, globally, it accounts for 8% of global emissions. Thus, there is a dire need to incorporate drastic measures, if one wishes to reach net-zero emissions by 2050, in accordance with the Paris Agreement of 2015. Electric Arc Furnaces are seeing a rapid implementation in the steel industry. However, at 0.5 tonnes of CO2 emitted per tonne of liquid steel produced, this emissions rating is still significant considering the amount of steel being produced annually. Additionally, these furnaces emit off-gases which must be treated from the dust. This leaves operators with a conundrum as the dust content compromises the use of waste heat recovery boilers for energy recovery, due to constant breakdowns. Therefore, this study aims to analyse the feasibility of using bioenergy and carbon capture and utilisation (CCU) concepts to capitalise on the high off-gas energy and emissions content to remedy the dust issue, whilst producing higher value products. The proposed concept evaluates the effectiveness of using the off-gas as the energy carrier and feed-stock for a biogasificaiton unit. Three different cases based on different EAF off-gas compositions have been investigated. Case 1 suggested that the off-gas composition is very CO2-heavy, whichled to investigating the option of adopting a CO2 biogasification concept to directly use the CO2. Case 1 performed the best in terms of CO2 utilisation efficiency; being 0.293. The system energy utilisation also noted that 49.3% of the inlet streams energy was transferred to the desired product. On a broader picture, this means that around 11% of the total energy coming out of the EAF would be utilised in producing a value-added product in the form of syngas. This contrasts with allowing around 33% of the energy in the EAF either being completely dissipated to the environment or converting it into electricity via waste heat recovery. The following two cases, Case 2 and 3, indicate EAF off-gas composition containing 72% and 40% nitrogen respectively. For Cases 2 and 3, a steam biogasification process was integrated which did not yield positive results for CO2 utilisation, since is a more promising gasifying agent. In addition, significant energy from EAF off-gas is used in raising the temperature of steam to the design temperature of the gasifier. However, although the CO2 was not directly used in this part of the process, it allows for other opportunities of process integration, for example the reverse water-gas shift step.

<p>The electric arc furnace (EAF) is a highly energy intensive process used to convert scrap metal into molten steel. The aim of this research is to develop a dynamic model of an industrial EAF process, and investigate its application for optimal EAF operation. This work has three main contributions; the first contribution is developing a model largely based on MacRosty and Swartz (2005) to meet the operation of a new industrial partner (ArcelorMittal Contrecoeur Ouest, Quebec, Canada). The second contribution is carrying out sensitivity analyses to investigate the effect of the scrap components on the EAF process. Finally, the third contribution includes the development of a constrained multi-rate extended Kalman filter (EKF) to infer the states of the system from the measurements provided by the plant.</p> <p>A multi-zone model is developed and discussed in detail. Heat and mass transfer relationships are considered. Chemical equilibrium is assumed in two of the zones and calculated through the minimization of the Gibbs free energy. The most sensitive parameters are identified and estimated using plant measurements. The model is then validated against plant data and has shown a reasonable level of accuracy.</p> <p>Local differential sensitivity analysis is performed to investigate the effect of scrap components on the EAF operation. Iron was found to have the greatest effect amongst the components present. Then, the optimal operation of the furnace is determined through economic optimization. In this case, the trade-off between electrical and chemical energy is determined in order to maximize the profit. Different scenarios are considered that include price variation in electricity, methane and oxygen.</p> <p>A constrained multi-rate EKF is implemented in order to estimate the states of the system using plant measurements. The EKF showed high performance in tracking the true states of the process, even in the presence of a parametric plant-model mismatch.</p> / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Thesis (MScEng) --University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis deals with the development of a new process for the production of Direct Reduced Iron (DRI), intended for use specifically by small scale Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) based steel mills, who require small volumes of DRI. The term development as used here is taken to include such aspects as conceptual design, theoretical verification and initial practical testing. The rise of EAF steelmaking brought about the metamorphosis of steel scrap from a waste product into a valuable raw material. Scrap prices rose steeply during the period 1995 to 2009 compelling EAF steelmakers, wishing to have more control over the cost of their input material, to seek for scrap supplements or alternatives. DRI has become an accepted and sought after supplement, or even complete alternative, to steel scrap. Adding DRI to an EAF charge has a range of advantages, including the dilution of tramp elements and possible cost benefits, but it does have negative effects. These include the lowering of the scrap to liquid metal yield and an increase in power consumed. The effect of charging DRI to a small EAF is quantified. The maximum DRI that may be added to the burden whilst still maintaining the present steelmaking volume, is shown to be as high as 50% if charged continuously, and the maximum price payable for DRI, is shown to be approximately 80% of base grade scrap price. Finally other requirements unique to small scale EAF operators are considered in order to prepare a schedule of requirements for a DRI plant specifically for small scale EAF steel mills. A review of published information on existing DRI production technology, processes and plants is undertaken is establish the fit of existing processes to the requirements set. Initially the thermodynamics and kinetics of iron ore reduction and coal gasification, specifically downdraft gasification are reviewed. Thereafter existing processes are reviewed. Shaft based processes and rotary kiln based processes are identified as possible suitors to the requirements. Limitations of these processes, specifically heat transfer in rotary kilns and the pressure drop over a reduction shafts are investigated. Finally a typical process in each of the main process classes is adjudicated against the set requirements. None is found to match the set requirements. A new process is proposed that is claimed to better suit to small scale operation. The uniqueness of the process is embodied in the combination of existing technologies of downdraft gasification and iron ore reduction in a shaft, in a single reactor. The process consists of two shafts, one placed above the other. Iron ore is charged into the top shaft, called the pre-heat shaft, where it is pre-heated and lightly reduced to wustite with gas from the bottom shaft, called the reduction shaft. The pre-heated ore is then charged together with coal into the reduction shaft. Gasification air is drawn into the top of the reduction shaft where the coal is gasified in a downdraft gasifier, generating reduction gas which reduces the ore as the gas moves concurrently with the iron ore. The exit gas is cleaned and pumped to the pre-heat shaft where it combusted with air to pre-heat the iron ore in the pre-heat shaft. The concept is analysed thermodynamically using amongst others, FactSage, and is shown to be thermodynamically viable. To test the concept process concept practically, an extremely small pilot plant with a production rate of 2kg DRI/h, consisting of only a gasifier/reduction shaft, was designed and constructed using reduction rate data obtained from literature supplemented with data obtained from thermogravimetric analysis of CO reduction of lump Sishen hematite. Pilot Plant trials were performed using various reductant sources. The degree of metallizaion was analysed using visual inspection of cut and polished samples compared to calibrated standards. Analysis of the results indicate that coal rate and production rate influence the degree of reduction positively and negatively. The conclusions arrived at include the fact that the process is thermodynamically viable, that it was possible to reduce iron ore in a simplified pilot plant, and that the process was found to be stable and controllable. It is recommended that a larger scale pilot plant, embodying the full proposed flow sheet be erected to test the process more completely. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die tesis handel oor die the ontwikkeling van ‘n nuwe proses vir die vervaardiging van sponsyster. Die proses is beoog spesifiek vir gebruik deur kleinskaalse Elektriese Boogoond (EBO) gebaseerde staal aanlegte, wat kleiner hoeveelhede sponsyster benodig. Die term ontwikkeling soos hier gebruik word aanvaar om aspekte soos konseptuele ontwerp, teoretiese verifikasie en aanvanklike toetsing te behels. Die vinnige groei van EBO staalvervaardiging het skroot getransformeer van weggooiproduk tot waardevolle grondstof. Die prys van skroot het skerp gestyg gedurende die periode 1995 to 2009. EBO gebaseerde staal produsente, in ‘n poging om meer beheer te hê oor die koste van hul insetmateriaal, het hul in ‘n toenemende mate tot skrootalternatiewe gewend. Sponsyster het ‘n aanvaarde en gewaardeerde byvoeging, en selfs alternatief tot staalskroot geword. Die byvoeging van sponsyster by die lading van ‘n tipiese EBO het besliste voordele, maar het dit ook nadelige effekte. Die voordele sluit die verdunning van reselemente en moontlike kostevoordele in, terwyl van die nadele die verlaging van die skroot tot vloeistaal opbrengs, en ‘n verhoging in kragverbruik, is. Die effek van die byvoeging van sponsyster tot ‘n EBO lading word gekwantifiseer. Daar word getoon dat die maksimum hoeveelheid sponsyster wat by ‘n EBO lading gevoeg kan word terwyl die hoeveelheid staal geproduseer konstant gehou word, ongeveer 50% is indien die sponsyster kontinue gelaai word, en die maksimum prys wat vir die sponsyster betaal kan word, word bereken op ongeveer 80% van die prys van basisgraad skroot. Ander vereistes uniek aan kleinskaal EBO bedrywers word oorweeg ten einde ‘n lys van vereistes vir ‘n sponsysteraanleg, uniek aan kleinskaal EBO bedrywers, te kan bepaal. ‘n Oorsig van gepubliseerde inligting oor sponsysterproduksietegnologie word onderneem ten einde die passing van bestaande prosesse met die gestelde vereistes te kan bepaal. Nadat die termodinamika en kinetika van ysterertsreduksie en steenkoolvergassing be-oordeel is, word bestaande sponsysterprosesse beskou. Skag- en Roterende oond gebaseerde prosesse word as moontlik gepaste prosesse identifiseer. Hitte-oordrag en die drukval oor gepakte beddens, synde tipiese beperkings eie aan die twee prosesse, woord beskou. Tipiese prosesse in elk van die hoofklasse van prosesse word ten laaste be-oordeel aan die gestelde kriteria. Daar word bevind dat geeneen van die bestaande prosesse aan die vereistes voldoen nie. ‘n Nuwe proses, wat skynbaar die behoefte van kleinskaalse EBO gebaseerde staalprodusente beter bevredig, word voorgestel. Bestaande tegnolgie word in ‘n unieke opstelling geïntegreer. Reduksie word in ‘n reduksiekag gedoen as gevolg van die ooglopende massa- en hitte-oordragvoordele van ‘n skag. Reduksiegas word verkry van steenkoolvergassing in ‘n afstroomvergasser ten einde teerverwydering in ‘n naverwerkingsstap oorbodig te maak. Die uniekheid van die proses is beliggaam in die kombinasie van ‘n steenkoolvergasser en reduksieskag in ‘n enkele reaktor. Die proses bestaan uit twee skagte, een bo die ander. Ystererts word in die boonste skag, wat die voorverhitskag genoem word, gelaai. Hier word die erts voorverhit en moontlik lig gereduseer tot wustiet met gas van die onderste skag, wat die reduksieskag genoem word. Die voorverhitte erts word saam met steenkool in die reduksieskag gelaai. Vergassingslug, word in die reduksieskag gesuig waar die steenkool in ‘n afstroomvergasser vergas word. Hierdeur word reduksiegas gegenereer wat die erts verder reduseer soos dit saamstromend met die erts af beweeg. Die uitlaatgas word gesuiwer en na die voorverhitskag gepomp waar dit verbrand word om die erts te voorverhit. Die konsep is termodinamies analiseer met gebruikmaking van onder andere FactSage, en werkbaar bevind. ‘n Baie klein, vereenvoudigde proefaanleg, met ‘n produksievermoë van 2kg DRY/uur, bestaande uit slegs ‘n reduksiekag, is ontwerp en gebou met gebruikmaking van kinetika inligting uit die literatuur aangevul met inligting uit termogravimetriese analise van die CO reduksie van Sishen hematiet. Proefaanleglopies is uitgevoer met ‘n reeks reduktantbronne. Die metallisasiegraad is bepaal deur visuele inspeksie van gesnyde, gepoleerde monsters wat vergelyk is met gekalibreerde standaarde. Analise van die resultate toon dat die steenkoolkoers ‘n positiewe verband, en die produksiekoers ‘n negatiewe verband met die metallisasiegraad het. Die slotsom waartoe gekom is, is dat die proses termodinamies werkbaar is, dat reduksie van ystererts in ‘n vereenvoudigde proefaanleg bewerk kon word, en dat die prose stabiel en beheerbaar voorgekom het. Die aanbeveling word gemaak dat ‘n groter proefaanleg wat die volledige voorgestelde vloeiskema verteenwoordig, opgerig behoort te word, ten einde die proses meer volledig te kan toets.

Cette thèse est dédiée aux convertisseurs multiniveaux et aborde les problématiques liées à la compensation des perturbations générées sur un réseau électrique, telles que celles produites par les fours à arc. Elle est composée de quatre chapitres couvrant les thématiques de la modélisation des réseaux électriques, des convertisseurs de tension, du contrôle commande et des stratégies de compensation, accompagnés de simulations et de résultats expérimentaux obtenus sur des équipements industriels de forte puissance. Les applications réseaux étant diverses et variées, les convertisseurs multiniveaux sont ici étudiés dans le but d’être raccordés directement sur des réseaux de distribution. Pour cela, un état de l’art des différentes topologies de convertisseurs de tension (classiques et multiniveaux) est présenté et les topologies dites modulaires, sont retenues pour une étude plus poussée. Ces convertisseurs utilisent des modules de puissance à base de ponts en H, de ½ ponts en H ou de ponts en H 3-niveaux connectés en cascade. Ils permettent ainsi de créer différents types de configurations ou couplages appelés dans ce mémoire : étoile, triangle et étoiles symétriques. Les différents modules et les stratégies pour les commander sont étudiés autour d’un composant de puissance (de type IGBT 2.5kV/1.5kA). A travers les domaines électrique et thermique, une méthode est proposée afin d’estimer les pertes, les températures de jonction et déterminer ainsi les limites d’utilisation d’un tel composant de puissance. Le dimensionnement et la fiabilité de ces convertisseurs est également abordé pour chacune des configurations envisagées, afin de dégager les avantages et inconvénients pour une application réseau. D’une façon générale, la stratégie de contrôle des convertisseurs multiniveaux est ardue, principalement lié au fait que de multiples sources de tensions continues doivent être contrôlées. Dans cette optique, des stratégies de contrôle sont proposées et validées en simulation selon les types de modules et de configurations utilisés pour la compensation des perturbations d’un four à arc. Enfin, la dernière partie de ces travaux est consacrée aux résultats expérimentaux sur la base d’un compensateur industriel dénommé DSVC (Dynamic Static Var Compensator), pour la compensation des fours à arc. Les différents résultats obtenus sur plusieurs sites industriels ont ainsi permis la validation des travaux exposés dans ce mémoire / This thesis is dedicated to the multilevel converters and addresses issues related to compensation for disturbance generated on an electrical network such as those produced by arc furnaces. It is composed of four chapters covering the themes of modeling of electrical networks, voltage converters, control and compensation strategies, with simulations and experimental results obtained on high power industrial equipment. There are many networks applications and multilevel converters are here considered to be directly connected to distribution networks. Therefore, a state of the art of different voltage converters, classics and multilevel topologies, is presented and the topologies called modular are retained for further studies. These converters use modular power cells made of H bridges, ½ bridges or 3-level H bridges connected in cascade. They allow to create different types of configurations or couplings called in this memory: star, delta and double stars. The different modules and the strategies to control them are investigated around the same switching power component (IGBT 2.5kV/1.5kA). Through electrical and thermal fields, a method is proposed to estimate their losses, junction temperatures in order to determine the limits of use of such a component of power. Sizing and reliability of these converters is also discussed for each considerer configurations in order to identify the advantages and disadvantages for a network application. Generally, the multilevel converters control strategy is difficult because of the multiple sources of DC voltages to control. In this context, control strategies are proposed and validated in simulation according to the types of modules and configuration used to compensation for disturbance of an arc furnace. Finally, the last part of this thesis is devoted to the experimental results based on an industrial compensator DSVC (Dynamic Static Var Compensator) for arc furnace compensation. The different results obtained at several industrial sites have thus allowed the validation of the various works exposed in this thesis

Eine umweltverträgliche Methode der Rückgewinnung anorganischer industrieller Abfallprodukte bietet die thermische Behandlung im elektrischen Lichtbogenofen. Hierbei wird der Abfallstoff geschmolzen und die enthaltenen Schwermetalloxide reduziert und von der mineralischen Phase abgetrennt. Der Prozess ist sehr energieaufwändig und noch nicht vollständig verstanden. Die laserinduzierte Plasmaspektroskopie (LIBS) soll als in situ-Messtechnik dabei helfen, das Verständnis zu verbessern und die Methode zu optimieren. In theoretischen Untersuchungen wurde gezeigt, dass die Güte von LIBS-Messungen durch Normierung auch mit einer gesättigten Linie eines Matrixelementes verbessert werden kann. Für LIBS-Messungen im elektrischen Lichtbogenofen wurde ein mobiles Doppelpuls-LIBS-System für industrielle Bedingungen entwickelt, getestet und optimiert. Als Modellsystem für Schlacken wurden dotierte Glasproben verwendet. Für festes und flüssiges Glas wurden Nachweisgrenzen im ppm-Bereich erreicht, was für die Gehalte in Schlackeproben ausreicht. Ferner wurden zwei Methoden entwickelt, Flüssigkeiten mit Hilfe von festen Standards zu quantifizieren. Um die Empfindlichkeit von LIBS zu verbessern, wurde Doppelpuls-LIBS untersucht. Es konnte eine Verstärkung des Signals um das 5,1-fache erreicht werden. Es konnten Emissionen der Moleküle CaCl, MgO, YO und ZrO in LIBS-Plasmen identifiziert und simuliert werden. Eine mögliche Verwendung der Molekülemissionen stellt die Quantifizierung sehr hoher Elementgehalte dar. Trotz der schwierigen experimentellen Bedingungen erwies sich das LIBS-System als empfindlich genug. Es wurde schrittweise Mangan- und Chromoxid zur Schmelze gegeben, was in einen linearen Anstieg der LIBS-Signale resultierte. Die Reduktion und Separation von Chrom gelang und konnte mit LIBS verfolgt werden, was durch die Referenzanalysen bestätigt wurde. / The reduction process in the electric arc furnace offers a sustainable method to recover industrial inorganic waste materials. The material is molten and the containing heavy metals are reduced and separated from the mineral phase. The energy consumption of the process is very high and the detailed reactions and dynamics are not yet fully understood. Laser induced breakdown spectroscopy can provide online-measurements inside a furnace, enabling us to increase understanding and optimize the process. In a theoretical investigation it has been shown that intensity fluctuations of LIBS can be compensated by normalizing the line used for analysis with a saturated line from a matrix element. For LIBS-measurements inside the electric arc furnace, a mobile double pulse LIBS-system designed for an industrial environment was built and tested. Glass was used as a model system for slags due to its lower melting point. Limits of detection in the ppm-region were achieved for solid and liquid glass, which is sufficient sensitivity for recycling slags. Furthermore, two methods were developed to quantify a liquid using solids as standards. To improve the sensitivity of LIBS, double-pulse measurements were conducted. Signal enhancements of up to 5.1 were achieved compared to single pulse. In the LIBS plasma emissions of molucules CaCl, MgO, YO and ZrO were identified and their emissions simulated. These emissions could be used to quantify large element concentrations. Despite the difficult experimental conditions the sensitivity of the LIBS-System has been found to be sufficient for recycling-slags. When stepwise adding manganese and chromium oxide to the melt, the respective LIBS intensity increased linearly. The reduction and separation of chromium was successful, which was confirmed by reference analysis.

Esta tese apresenta os métodos de gerenciamento associados ao Pó de Aciaria Elétrica (PAE) gerado no forno elétrico a arco (FEA) e no forno-panela (FP), envolvendo dois grandes tópicos: sistema de gestão ambiental e fatores relacionados à tecnologia. O processo do PAE percorre as seguintes etapas: entrada e beneficiamento da matériaprima, preparação, carregamento e fusão de carga no FEA, formação e retirada de escória, vazamento do aço para a panela, refino no forno-panela, assim como o sistema de captação das emissões atmosféricas e destinação do PAE captado no FEA e FP. Os métodos de gerenciamento foram estruturados em cima do aprendizado técnico, qualitativo e quantitativo adquirido no desenvolvimento das atividades profissionais, dos levantamentos sobre as tecnologias disponíveis para destinação e reciclagem do PAE, dos mapeamentos das características das instalações de captação do PAE de empresas siderúrgicas, bem como das bibliografias e visitas técnicas realizadas. As informações reunidas foram empregadas para desenvolver duas matrizes de avaliação, consolidando assim, um critério para verificar as práticas de gestão ambiental e de tecnologias que estão associadas ao PAE. O principal resultado das matrizes foi a identificação e priorização das necessidades de melhorias, tanto do sistema de gestão ambiental como da área de tecnologia. A avaliação das empresas siderúrgicas, segundo estas matrizes, mostrou quais práticas possuem menores valores e que, por conseqüência, devem requerer maior esforço para melhorar seus desempenhos, bem como aquelas de maior valor que requerem uma consolidação da sua rotina para manterem o elevado nível de desempenho atingido. Como conclusão, foi obtida uma ferramenta robusta que respondeu de forma consistente a avaliação do processo do PAE e a pergunta sobre “O que se encontra mais desenvolvido, os processos de gestão ou os de tecnologia?”. As matrizes de avaliação foram preenchidas por especialistas ambientais de três Empresas siderúrgicas. O resultado obtido com essa ferramenta mostrou que os desempenhos sobre as práticas de gestão são superiores aos desempenhos das práticas de tecnologia e que esta metodologia de avaliação está apta para ser aplicada em qualquer outro processo ou empresa. Ficou evidenciado que o conhecimento e a inteligência ambiental são requisitos para assegurar que as estratégias de médio e longo prazo estejam corretamente alinhadas às boas práticas de gestão e melhores tecnologias disponíveis. / The thesis presents the methods associated with the management of the electric arc furnace (EAF) baghouse dust and ladle furnace (LF) dust. The management methods cover two broad topics: environmental management system practices and technology related factors. The EAF baghouse dust and ladle furnace (LF) dust process has the following steps: input and processing raw materials, EAF charging and melting, slag generation and removal, furnace tapping of the steel to the LF, refining in the LF, as well as the EAF dedusting system, dust recycling and final destination. The management methods were determined based on professional experience of the author, assessment of typical installations of steel plant dedusting system, bibliographies review, available technologies to EAF/LF dust destination and recycling and subject technical literature, as well technical visits undertaken. Collectively the information was used to develop two standard evaluation standard matrices which provide criteria to assess environmental management system practices and technology associated with EAF dust management. The primary goal of the assessments was to identify and prioritize areas for potential improvement - either in environmental management systems area or the technology area. The assessment results showed that steel plants which have practices with lower values, according to these matrices, should require greater effort to improve their performance, while those with good score, will require a consolidation of their routine to maintain the high level of performance already achieved. The matrices were filled by environmental experts from three steelmaking companies. Finally, as a result of this project a rigorous and reliable assessment tool was designed to evaluate the meltshop dust generation and management process and provide a quantitative answer to the following question: `Which area has achieved a higher level of development as it relates to meltshop dust management: environmental management system practices or control technology?’ The results from using this tool have shown that the performance of management practices is superior to the control technology. Furthermore, experiences captured during the assessment indicate this evaluation methodology is fully adaptable and can be applied to other processes and/or other businesses. It was clearly highlighted how knowledge and environmental intelligence are requirements to assure that the medium and long term strategies are properly aligned with the available best practices to environmental management system and control technology.

O pó de forno elétrico a arco (FEA) é gerado durante a fusão de sucata ferrosa nos fornos elétricos a arco e coletado predominantemente através de filtros de mangas. Esta substância é listada como resíduo sólido perigoso de fonte específica, K061, conforme a Norma ABNT NBR 10004:2004. As maiores empresas siderúrgicas semi-integradas do mundo têm adotado para o tratamento de pó de FEA, fundamentalmente três rotas: a recuperação de zinco e chumbo, através de dois processos complementares, um piro-metalúrgico, o Wäelz kiln e outro hidro-metalúrgico, o processo de dupla lixiviação Óxido de Wäelz; a inertização através da blendagem com a cal, aditivos e água, de forma a alcançar o pH da mistura >11, o que garante que metais pesados como o chumbo, cádmio e o zinco, presentes no pó de forno elétrico, não possam se tornar solúveis, evitando consequentemente, a sua lixiviação e a disposição em aterros industriais de resíduos sólidos perigosos. Sob a perspectiva da sustentabilidade, deve ser considerada a rota da recuperação de zinco e chumbo, que para ser viável necessita reunir a geração de pó de FEA de varias plantas, o que para um país com dimensões continentais pode ser um fator de insucesso. Esse trabalho trata da reciclagem do pó de FEA através do processo de sinterização de um compósito constituído de pó de FEA aglomerado com coque, carepa e fluorita cerâmica em pelotas, aplicável a uma planta unitária. Como resultado deste processo foram obtidos dois coprodutos, o aglomerado pré-fundido, APF, com teor de óxido de ferro superior a 70%, objeto do processo de sinterização e o concentrado de zinco, com teor de óxido de zinco maior que 50%, resultante da volatilização deste metal durante o processo de sinterização e coletado através de filtro de mangas. Complementarmente foi extraído aproximadamente 90% dos óxidos de chumbo e cádmio contidos no pó de FEA inicial. A produção do APF ocorreu em escala experimental dividida em três fases, a primeira fase foi efetuada com oito formulações distintas e comprovou através de análises químicas de espectrometria por fluorescência de raios X e difratometria de raios X, a viabilidade técnica da utilização somente de resíduos sólidos industriais para fabricação do APF. A segunda fase, também com oito formulações, definidas conforme planejamento de experimentos com delineamento fatorial, teve como objetivo identificar os principais efeitos das interações entre os componentes do APF, para obtenção da mistura com formulação ótima. A terceira fase testou a intensidade das variáveis, coque e fluorita cerâmica, para a extração do zinco. As duas primeiras fases dos testes de produção em escala experimental foram realizadas em uma planta piloto de sinterização de fluxo descendente e a terceira fase em uma planta piloto de fluxo ascendente, ambas instaladas na usina ArcelorMittal Piracicaba. O APF, com a formulação ótima, foi produzido em escala industrial na planta de sinterização Metalflexi, também instalada na usina ArcelorMittal Piracicaba, e testado em alto-forno de pequeno porte. O concentrado de zinco foi caracterizado quimicamente para se avaliar o uso em segmentos industriais que utilizem este elemento. / The electric arc furnace (EAF) dust is generated during melting of steel scrap in electric arc furnaces and collected mainly through bag filters. The EAF dust is listed as hazardous waste from specific source, K061, according to ABNT 10004:2004. The major semi-integrated steel companies in the world have adopted for the treatment of EAF dust, basically three routes: the recovery of zinc and lead, through two complementary processes, a pyro-metallurgy, Waelz kiln and other hydro-metallurgical the leaching process of double oxide Waelz; the blanketing by blending with lime, water and additives in order to achieve the pH of the mixture>11, which ensures that heavy metals like lead, cadmium and zinc, present in furnace residue, can not become soluble, thereby avoiding the leaching and disposal in landfills of hazardous waste. This work suggests recycling of the EAF dust by sintering of a composite consisting of EAF dust agglomerate to coke particles (carbon source), mill scale (iron source) and ceramic fluorite (adictive agent used like fluxant) into pellets, a process known as sintering. As a result of the process is expected to obtain two by-products, the pre-cast agglomerated, PCA, with iron oxide content exceeding 70%, object of the process of sintering and zinc dust, containing more than 50% zinc oxide resulting from volatilization of this metal during the sintering process and collected by bag filter. Addition is expected to extract approximately 90% of lead and cadmium oxide contained in the initial EAF dust. The production of the PCA occurred in experimental scale divided into three stages, the first stage was performed with eight different formulations and checked by chemical analysis by X-ray fluorescence spectrometer and X-ray diffraction, the technical viability of using only solid waste industrial manufacturing PCA. The second phase, also with eight formulations, defined as planning experiments with factorial design, was tested the main effects and the double and triple interactions between the components of the PCA, to obtain the optimal formulation. The third phase was checked the intensity of the variables, coke fluorite ceramics, for removing zinc of PCA. The first two stages of the production tests were carried out on a pilot scale in a pilot plant sintering downstream and the third phase in a pilot plant xii upstream, both installed in the plant ArcelorMittal Piracicaba. The PCA, with the optimal formulation was produced on an industrial scale in the sinter plant Metalflexi also installed at the plant ArcelorMittal Piracicaba, and tested in small blast furnace. The zinc dust was characterized chemically for application in industries that use this element.

In this research work, two new flickermeters are proposed to estimate the light flicker caused by electric arc furnaces (EAFs) where the system frequency deviates significantly. In these methods, analytical expressions of the instantaneous light flicker sensation are obtained beginning from a voltage waveform and these expressions are used to obtain a flicker estimation method based on the IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission) flickermeter. First method is a spectral decomposition based approach using DFT to estimate the light flicker. The leakage effect of the DFT algorithm due to fundamental frequency variation is reduced by employing spectral amplitude correction procedure around the fundamental frequency. Second method is a Kalman filter based approach, in which the frequency domain components of the voltage waveform are obtained by Kalman filtering. Then these components are used to obtain the light flicker. Since the frequency decomposition is obtained by Kalman filtering, no leakage effect of the DFT is involved in case of frequency deviations which is an important advantage. Both methods are tested on both simulated data and field data obtained from three different EAF plants where the flicker level and frequency variation is considerably high. The comparison with the digital realization of the IEC flickermeter shows that the methods are successful in estimating light flicker with low computational complexity. The methods are especially useful for conditions such as disturbances and subsequent system transients where the system frequency deviates significantly, since the methods avoid the need for online sampling rate adjustment to prevent the DFT leakage effect.

Voltage fluctuations under 30 Hz in the electricity grid, leads to oscillations in the light intensity that can be perceived by human eye, which is called flicker. In this thesis, the sources of the flicker at a point of common coupling is investigated. When there are more than one flicker sources connected to a PCC, individual effects of each flicker source is determined by using a new method which depends on the reactive current components of the sources. This method is mainly based on the flickermeter design defined by the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), but uses the current variations in addition to the voltage variations to compute flicker. The proposed method is applied to several different types of loads supplied from a PCC and their flicker contributions on the busbar are investigated. Experiments are performed on field data obtained by the power quality analyzers (PQ+) developed by the National Power Quality Project and the method has been found to provide accurate results for flicker contributions of various loads. The PQ+ analyzers with the proposed flicker contribution detection algorithm are called Flicker Contribution Meters (FCM) and they will be installed at the points of the Turkish Electricity Transmission Network when required.