Este trabalho apresenta o desenvolvimento de um tribômetro para a realização de ensaios com materiais de fricção utilizados em freios veiculares, capaz de servir como uma ferramenta adicional para pesquisa e desenvolvimento de novos produtos. São apresentadas todas as etapas de desenvolvimento da máquina, desde suas premissas básicas, projeto mecânico e de automação e procedimento de calibração até os testes finais para comprovação das suas potencialidades. Construiu-se um equipamento de pequeno porte (dimensões reduzidas), a fim de permitir ensaios rápidos e de baixo custo. O sistema atuador e de rotação foi dimensionado a partir de faixas de velocidade e pressão de contato que ocorrem em sistemas de freio comerciais. O tribômetro permite a troca rápida dos corpos de prova além do ajuste do raio de deslizamento do par de atrito. Além disso, um mecanismo de atuação próprio permite a realização de ensaios sem a influência do tipo de sistema de freio empregado. O sistema de automação, composto por hardware para aquisição de dados e programa para gerar interface gráfica, gerencia todos os processos envolvidos na máquina, além de tornar a sua operacionalidade simples e racional. Um conjunto composto por resistência aquecedora, soprador de ar, relé e termopares é responsável por controlar a temperatura do disco, separando esta variável dos demais parâmetros de operação (pressão e velocidade de escorregamento) durante os ensaios. O procedimento de calibração adotado mostra que o equipamento projetado fornece medições confiáveis da força normal, do torque de frenagem e, conseqüentemente, do coeficiente de atrito. Testes de avaliação do sistema atuador apontam que a força medida sofre a influência da rugosidade do disco, da baixa capacidade do reservatório de ar do sistema pneumático, de efeitos de histerese mecânica e da dilatação térmica e de ruídos eletromagnéticos. Os resultados dos ensaios de frenagem empregados comprovam que a máquina projetada é capaz de separar a variável temperatura do disco dos demais parâmetros de operação e, desta forma, pode servir de ferramenta adicional na compreensão do comportamento do atrito (e do desgaste em um momento posterior) frente às diferentes condições de operação contribuindo, de certa forma, para o aumento do conhecimento dos fenômenos tribológicos. / This work presents the development of a tribometer for friction tests with materials used in vehicular brakes, able to serving as an additional tool for research and development of new products. Every stage of the project are presented since its basic premises, mechanical and automation design, the calibration procedure until the final tests to prove its potential. It was constructed an equipment with small dimensions to enable rapid and low cost testing. The actuator and rotation system has been designed to operate in the range of velocity and contact pressures that occur in commercial brake systems. The tribometer allows the rapid exchange of specimen beyond the adjustment of the wear track radius. Furthermore, a special mechanism of action was designed to allow testing without the influence of the type of brake system employed. The automation system, composed of a data acquisition hardware and software to generate graphical interface, manages all processes involved in the machine, and makes its operation simple and rational. A set composed of heating resistance, air blower, relay and thermocouples is responsible for controlling the temperature of the disk, separating it from other variable operating conditions (pressure and slip velocity) during tests. The calibration procedure performed show that the equipment designed provides reliable measurements of normal force, braking torque and friction coefficient. The tests for evaluating the system actuator suggest that the force measurement has influence of the disk surface roughness, of low air capacity in the tank, of thermal dilation and mechanic hysteresis effects and of electromagnetic noise. The results of braking tests performed show that the designed machine is capable of separating the variable disk temperature of the other operation parameters and thus can serve as an additional tool in understanding the friction behavior (and wear a moment later) under a set of operating conditions. It can contribute, in some way, to enlarge the knowledge with respect to tribologics phenomenons.

A presente tese descreve as etapas de desenvolvimento de um equipamento (tribômetro) e metodologia de ensaio para caracterização do efeito isolado da temperatura sobre o atrito medido em materiais de fricção utilizados em freios veiculares. O projeto deste equipamento foi baseado nas funcionalidades e limitações encontradas nas principais máquinas e procedimentos de ensaio para freios automotivos. São apresentados e discutidos detalhes do projeto mecânico e de automação do tribômetro, bem como são levantadas suas incertezas de medição instrumentais e precisão. Além disso, é proposta uma nova metodologia de ensaio para caracterização do efeito isolado da temperatura sobre os resultados de atrito obtidos durante os testes. O projeto mecânico atual do tribômetro contempla recursos que contribuem para facilitar a operacionalidade do equipamento e, consequentemente, reduzir o tempo envolvido na etapa de preparação dos testes. São exemplos destes recursos um mecanismo de fuso e manivela, o qual é empregado para a regulagem do raio de deslizamento, e um dispositivo para troca rápida da amostra a partir do ajuste de um único parafuso. O atual projeto de automação do tribômetro é composto por circuitos de controle da carga, rotação, torque e temperatura, os quais operam em malha fechada. A incerteza instrumental do sistema de medição de atrito do tribômetro é igual a ±2,9% do valor nominal medido, considerando a faixa típica de aplicação da máquina. Em termos de precisão, verificou-se experimentalmente que o equipamento projetado apresenta uma repetitividade de ±0,013. O projeto de automação também contemplou a ligação do tribômetro a um aquecedor indutivo. O uso da referida tecnologia em conjunto com a metodologia de ensaio proposta na presente tese mostraram-se capazes de caracterizar de forma acelerada e independente o efeito da temperatura sobre o coeficiente de atrito obtido a partir de ensaios de frenagem executados no tribômetro. Complementa o estudo ainda o desenvolvimento de uma técnica para pós-processamento dos dados relativos aos ensaios executados no tribômetro segundo a metodologia proposta. A referida técnica mostrou-se uma maneira eficiente e relativamente simples de avaliar os efeitos simultâneos da carga e da temperatura sobre o atrito. / The current thesis describes the development of equipment (tribometer) and testing procedure for characterizing the isolated effect of temperature on friction measurements obtained from vehicular friction materials. The design of this equipment was based on the features and limitations found in the main machinery and testing procedures for brakes. Details about the mechanical design and automation of the tribometer are presented as well as its instrumental measurement uncertainties and precision. Besides, a new testing procedure is proposed in order to characterize the isolated effect of temperature on friction results obtained in the tests. The current mechanical design of the tribometer comprises some features that contribute to make the equipment operation ease and thus reduce its setup time. A crank and screw mechanism, which is used for adjusting the sliding radius, and a device for rapid exchange of the samples by means of a single screw are both examples of those features. The current automation design of the tribometer consists of circuits for controlling load, speed, torque and temperature, which operate in closed loop mode. The instrumental measurement uncertainty from the friction measuring system is ±2,9% of the nominal friction measurement, considering the typical operating range of the machine. Experimental tests performed on the tribometer showed that the repeatability (precision) of the friction measurements is ±0,013. The automation design also included the connection between the tribometer and an induction heater. The use of this technology together with the proposed testing procedure proved to be a suitable tool for characterizing the isolated effect of temperature on friction during braking tests performed on the tribometer. This work is also complemented by the development of a technique for post-processing the data related to the tests carried out in accordance with the proposed testing procedure for the tribometer. This technique proved to be an efficient and clear way to assess the simultaneous effects of load and temperature on friction measurements.

Orientador: Edison Bittencourt / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Química / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T04:51:00Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Silveira_JoaoViniciosWirbitzkida_M.pdf: 8775567 bytes, checksum: 35a926d080f0ec01d62b71fe89882b3d (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: As pastilhas de freio são materiais compósitos que têm sido constantemente aperfeiçoadas, principalmente pela substituição por materiais que melhorem o desempenho destes elementos ou diminuam os impactos ao homem e ao meio ambiente. Com a procura de materiais de fontes renováveis para substituir materiais sintéticos, a lignina, uma macromolécula natural encontrada em vegetais e abundantemente na madeira, se torna uma alternativa altamente viável para emprego em diversos tipos de materiais, entre eles os materiais compósitos. O objetivo desta pesquisa é desenvolver resinas com substituição parcial da resina fenólica por teores diversos de lignosulfonato de amônio e estudar o comportamento de pastilhas de freios fabricadas com tais resinas e reforçadas com fibras de aramida. São empregados ensaios analíticos de caracterização (FT-IR, DSC, TGA, DMA, ângulo de contato, MEV e EDS) e métodos já utilizados na indústria automobilística (ensaio Krauss e desgaste) para caracterizar e verificar o desempenho desses materiais. O lignosulfonato, apesar de possuir menos grupos fenólicos disponíveis para a reação de reticulação que o próprio fenol livre, é capaz de reagir formando uma matriz polimérica, porém as propriedades tribológicas ficam um pouco comprometidas. O coeficiente de atrito médio encontrado é de aproximadamente µm=0,4, um pouco acima dos valores de pastilhas comerciais, entretanto apresentam boa estabilidade quanto ao desempenho dos freios e ao desgaste. A estrutura do compósito vista com auxílio de microscópio eletrônico se apresenta pouco homogênea. Os resultados satisfatórios e compatíveis com os atuais materiais de fricção possibilitam a incorporação desta resina no processo de fabricação de materiais de fricção. / Abstract: Brake pads are composite materials, which have been constantly improved, mainly by the replacement of materials that improve the performance of the braking process, or that reduce the impacts of it on human beings and environment. Through the search for renewable materials to replace the synthetic ones, lignin becomes a highly viable alternative to be employed in several kinds of materials, including the composite ones. Lignin can be found in vegetables and it is plentiful in wood. This research aims to develop a resin with partial replacement of phenolic resin by different contents of ammonium lignosulfonate and to study the behavior of brake pads produced with these resins and reinforced with aramid fibers. Analytical characterization (FT-IR, DSC, TGA, DMA, contact angle, SEM and EDS) and methods commonly used in automotive industry (Krauss method and wear) are used to characterize and verify the performance of these materials. Despite lignosulfonate has less phenolic groups available for reticulation reaction than free phenol itself, it is able to react forming a polymeric matrix, but tribological properties are compromised a bit. Average friction coefficient found is about µm=0,4, a value slightly higher than the one of commercial brake pads. However, they show good stability related to braking performance and wear. Composite structure observed with the aid of scanning electron microscopy shows itself a heterogeneous material. Satisfactory results, compatible with current friction materials, allow the incorporation of this resin in the process of manufacturing friction materials. / Mestrado / Ciencia e Tecnologia de Materiais / Mestre em Engenharia Química

M.Ing. / Adaptive traction control can greatly enhance the mobility of vehicles on varying road surfaces. Traction control includes Antilock Braking Systems (ABS) and Antislip Regulation Systems (ASR). During braking, wheel slip is controlled with ABS, while wheel slip during acceleration is controlled by an ASR. Since the friction between a vehicle's tyre and the road surface is a function of wheel slip, there is an optimum wheel slip value at which the best road holding performance can be achieved. This optimum wheel slip value will however change with differing road surfaces and vehicle speeds. Optimising the wheel slip values has several advantages: both vehicle stopping and acceleration distances can be optimised, vehicle handling during in-turn braking and acceleration are optimised and tyre wear is reduced. Currently there are various ABS and ASR systems available, with the common goal of optimising wheel slip. These systems are however mechanically complex, while the operation of both these systems is usually triggered when some wheel slip value is exceeded. Differing road surfaces can greatly influence the effectiveness of these systems. The central theme of this research is the development of a fuzzy logic control algorithm for vehicle traction control. The control algorithm is tested with an experimental setup. The operating conditions experienced by an ABS are closely simulated in order to study the feasibility of fuzzy logic for traction control. The results obtained indicates the viability of fuzzy logic for wheel slip control. Confirmation of these results, obtained with the experimental ABS, have to be validated during vehicle testing. The main goal is to improve the performances of existing traction control systems and the feasibility of fuzzy controllers in automobile applications.

Friction contact with both external and internal environments can significantly influence its efficiency, which could cause friction instabilities, vibration, and noise. Focusing on the effects that troubles brake pad, rotor, and friction-induced NVH, the main motivation for this study is to understand its drawbacks for some extent in a braking system. By proper study on applied statistics, an experimental design is planned. The design has friction tests that are performed by scaling down real test properties used in dynamometer to scaled-down properties in a subscale tester by using scaling law of physics. The test has two different types of rubbers with different humidity conditions with respect to two different brake pads in a small-scale tester, the Universal Mechanical Tester (UMT). This friction experiment helps in determining how different rubbers impact its stiffness on the coefficient of friction and noise levels, also to evaluate which scenario has the better damping capacity. The effect on the coefficient of friction and noise levels with and without rubbers is also compared. The results are subjected to the Design of Experiments analyses test know the statistical relationship between factors affecting the process and output of that process at different controllable variables namely humidity and temperature.

This research study talks about the possible influence of gray cast iron microstructure on the corrosion properties of the brake rotor and the effect of stiction. Three Gray cast iron rotors with fully pearlitic microstructure and below 5% volume content of ferrite were studied in this research to understand their microstructural influence over corrosion. The selected gray cast iron rotors were friction tested against a 2009 Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) Ford F150 brake pad using scaled-down SAE J2522 standard test. Tested samples were later subjected to GMW16696 standard test, to identify the breakaway forces indirectly defining the corrosion resistance of the friction material used. The results show that the degree of corrosion and breakaway forces observed are greatly influenced by the graphite content quantified from quantitative analysis techniques adopted. Rotor with higher graphite content observed higher breakaway force and higher oxygen content compared to the other two studied rotors. Higher graphite content is considered to provide more cathodes, it accelerates the corrosion of the iron element in the rotor. There is no reliable correlation between the pearlite and ferrite of the gray cast iron rotor stiction force. The poor correlation between stiction force and microstructure also shows that the size of stiction force is not determined by a single factor.

The basic aim of this thesis is to design optimisation of the brake bench in question. For this kind of optimisation, it was necessary to ascertain which failings the current brake bench exhibited. After ascertaining such failings, design of modification to this brake bench must be performed. In terms of this thesis, it was ascertained that the brake bench has insufficient brake power. Based on this finding, two alternatives for modifications have been selected. The first is replacement of the dynamometer and the second is insertion of a gear box into the brake bench. Rigidity analysis was performed on the gear casing.

This thesis deals with the design of the magnetorheological (MR) clutch. The extensive literature research with particular conclusions to each design variant of MR clutches or brakes has been done in the first part of the thesis. The second part of the thesis describes the design of the actual MR clutch based on the results of the analytical calculation of the magnetic circuit. Finally, the experiments verifying the function of the key segments of the clutch, and the whole clutch are summarized in the third part of the thesis.

Since the investigation of wear particles in rail transport started in late-1910s, the high mass concentration of these particles has raised worries among researchers concerned with air quality. However, effective action has yet to be taken because of lack of relevant knowledge. This thesis provides applicable information for the airborne wear particles in rail transport. Some aspects of their characteristics such as diameter size, mass concentration, number concentration, and morphology of particles were investigated in field tests and laboratory tests.The effects on particle characterisations from different operational conditions in the field tests, and applying different braking materials, conducting tests in different applied loads or sliding velocities in the laboratory tests were studied. The main advantage of conducting laboratory tests was to focus on studying particles from one source. The possibility of repetition, using high sensitive instruments and conducting tests at low costs are the other advantages of laboratory studies. Paper A describes how a pin-on-disc machine was used to reproduce similar real operational conditions during mechanical braking in a train. The results were validated by comparing the field tests results with the laboratory studies. The particles morphology and size distribution were also studied.Paper B presents a summary of field tests results. The effects of curve negotiating and applying braking in different real conditions were investigated with an on-board measurement.The element composition of the particles and their potential sources were also investigated outside of the particles morphologies.Paper C presents comprehensive results from laboratory studies on airborne particles from different braking materials. The differences in the particle characteristics in similar test conditions were attributable to different material compositions and dominant wear mechanisms. A new index was introduced in this paper and is suggested to be used as a qualitative factor with regard to the airborne wear particle emission rate.Paper D is a review of the recent studies of exhaust emission and non-exhaust emission from rail vehicles. A summary of results, measurements, adverse health effects, and proposed or applied solutions are reviewed in this paper. / <p>QC 20110812</p> / JVG F6521

In an effort to reduce physical testing during the development process of a new vehicle, the automotive industries develop methods that can facilitate the recreation of the physical testing scenarios in virtual environments using simulation software. This thesis aims to develop a method which would help evaluate the vehicle’s dynamic properties without it being subjected to physical testing. The goal is to develop a tool that can be used in an early development phase by the industry and that would allow for modifications and calibration to take place. A vehicle model as well as an electronic stability control implementation is built, and the model’s performance to an ISO3888 part-2 double lane change test is evaluated. Since the handling potentials of the vehicle are rated by its entry speed in that test, the model was subjected to an optimization process where its steering action was controlled in order to achieve the highest possible entry speed to the test in an effort to isolate the vehicle’s dynamic potential from the influence of a human driver when conducting this test. The vehicle modelling procedure is done in steps, from a simple implementation of a linear bicycle model to a more complex implementation of a four-wheel vehicle including roll, tire relaxation and suspension compliance properties as well as a simplified ESC implementation. The results of the steering input optimization process were physically tested on a test track, where the correspondence of the model to the real vehicle was evaluated. By further promoting the vehicle dynamics modelling, this tool can facilitate study more testing scenarios and options and it can serve as a step toward the reduction of the physical testing when the vehicle’s dynamic and handling performance need to be studied and evaluated. / Under utvecklingsprocessen av nya fordon sker en strävan mot att reducera fysiska tester, bilindustrier utvecklar därför metoder för att återskapa fysiska testscenarier i virtuella miljöer med hjälp av simuleringsmjukvara. Denna studie har som målsättning att utveckla en metod, med vilken fordonets dynamiska egenskaper kan utvärderas utan att utföra fysiska tester. Målet är att utveckla ett simuleringsverktyg som, i en tidig utvecklingsfas, kan användas av fordonsindustrin och som skulle införa både modifikations- och kalibreringsmöjligheter i detta skede. Såväl en fordonsmodell som ett anti-sladd system är konstruerat och modellens prestanda i ett dubbelt filbyte, specificerat i ISO3888 del 2, är utvärderad. Då bilens dynamiska prestanda klassificeras utifrån ingångshastigheten i detta test utfördes en optimeringsprocess där hjulens styrvinklar reglerades för att uppnå högsta möjliga hastighet vid testets startposition, detta för att separera fordonets dynamiska klassificering från mänsklig inverkan. Processen att konstruera fordonsmodellen utfördes med succesivt ökande antal av fordonsegenskaper, från en enkel implementering av en linjär cykel-modell till en tvåspårs-modell med krängning, transienta däckegenskaper, hjulupphängningsegenskaper samt ett anti-sladd system. Resultatet av den optimerade styrregleringen testades i motsvarande fordon på en testbana varefter modellen kunde utvärderas med det verkliga testet som referens. Genom en utökad möjlighet till simulering kan detta verktyg ge möjligheten att studera fler scenarier såväl som alternativa modelleringskonfigurationer; det kan reducera fysiska tester då fordons dynamiska prestanda ska klassificeras, studeras samt utvärderas.