CD8 T cells recognize complexes of MHC class I and peptide on the surface of target cells. MHC class I antigen presentation is a long pathway, in which proteins are degraded by proteasomes to generating oligopeptides, which may be further trimmed by aminopeptidases in the cytosol. Peptides are transported into the ER, where they may be further trimmed by ER lumenal aminopeptidases and bind to newly-synthesized MHC class I complexes. Proteins degraded by the proteasome are generally tagged with ubiquitin by a combination of ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes and ubiquitin ligases. UBC9 is one ubiquitin conjugating enzyme, which does not conjugate ubiquitin, but instead conjugates small ubiquitin-like molecules (SUMO) to target protein. UBC9 has been found to regulate the functions of many proteins in vivo, most importantly by modifying nuclear transportation and function. Curing [During] my thesis work, I studied the function of UBC9 in MHC class I antigen presentation. UBC9 over-expression in COS cells co-expressing ovalbumin markedly increased presentation SIINFEKL (the immunodominant epitope from ovalbumin in the context of H-2Kb), and UBC9 overexpression increased cell surface H-2Kbin general, suggesting that Ubc9 increased MHC class I antigen presentation by increasing peptide supply. UBC9 did not increase synthesis or degradation of ovalbumin. In transient transfection experiments, Ubc9 increased presentation of SIINFEKL precursors that did, and that did not, depend on proteasomes for processing, as well as SIINFEKL precursors targeted to the ER, bypassing cytosolic processing altogether. However, a C-terminal extended precursor of SIINFEKL, which requires only proteasomal processing before presentation, was the most markedly affected by UBC9 overexpression. This suggested that UBC9 was affecting the pattern of cleavages made by proteasomes in ways that enhance the generation of the C-terminus of SIINFEKL. Because presentation of SIINFEKL itself (which requires no further proteolytic processing) was also enhanced, UBC9 must also affect steps in the class I pathway that occur after the generation of the mature epitopes. UBC9 did not affect the rate of peptide degradation in cytosolic extracts or in intact cells. These findings suggested that UBC9 might have multiple effects on the MHC class I antigen presentation pathway. Immunofluorescent microscopy demonstrated that UBC9 increased the expression of the beta subunits of immunoproteasomes (LMP2, LMP7, and MECL1) as well as of TAP1 and tapasin. In contrast, UBC9 expression did not increase levels of calnexin, calreticulin, ERp57, or Protein disulfide isomerase (PDI). Similarly, levels of leucine aminopeptidase were not increased in UBC9-transfected cells. Therefore, UBC9 overexpression increases the levels of some but not all components of the class I pathway. UBC9 overexpression increased protein levels of MECL1, LMP2 or LMP7 that were under the control of viral promoters, and levels of MECL1 mRNA were similar in control vector and UBC9 transfected cells. Therefore, UBC9 did not increase the level of expression of these subunits through increased transcription. Pulse-chase experiments showed that UBC9 overexpression reduced the degradation of MECL1. Therefore, UBC9 increases the levels of at least some of these components of the MHC class I antigen presentation pathway by increasing their stability. To know the biological significance of UBC9 in MHC class I antigen presentation, I used small interfering RNA (siRNA) to knock down UBC9. Though UBC9 can be successfully knocked down by siRNA, the UBC9-negative cells became very sick, and were not suitable for the study of MHC class I antigen presentation. There are three forms of SUMO molecules in mammalian cells: SUMO-1, SUMO-2 and SUMO-3. My study suggested that SUMO-2 may be involved in UBC9's regulation of MHC class I antigen presentation, since mutant SUMO-2 blocked UBC9's ability to increase H-2Kb-SIINFEKL levels on the cell surface after the cells were loaded with ovalbumin. To further study the function of UBC9, I mutated the active amino acid Cys 93 of UBC9 to Ser (UBC9OH). Unexpectedly, this mutant form (UBC9OH) has very similar effects as wild-type UBC9, increasing Kb-SIINFEKL levels at the cells surface. This suggested that UBC9 protein regulates MHC class I antigen presentation pathway proteins by direct or indirect protein interaction, rather than (or as well as) by SUMO conjugation. Taking account of SUMO-2 results, I propose that wild-type UBC9 (either transfected or endogenous) conjugates SUMO-2 to its substrates, and then UBC9 (wild-type or mutant) interacts with its sumoylated targets, thus affecting protein functions. I also studied heat shock protein Hsp27, which is known to be a substrate for UBC9 in vivo. Hsp27 is expressed in a variety of tissues in the absence of stress, and may regulate actin dynamics. Hsp27 overexpression decreased generation of H-2Kb-SIINFEKL complexes from SIINFEKL precursors that did, and did not, require proteasomes for processing, or that were targeted to the ER. Hsp27 over-expression did not affect protein synthesis, and globally decreased cell surface H2-Kb and H2-Dblevels, but did not affect HLA-A0302 level. Hsp27 overexpression inhibits the presentation of ER-localized SIINFEKL. Taken together, my data suggested that HSP27 may inhibit MHC class I antigen presentation by affecting MHC class I molecules itself rather than peptide supply. After Hsp27 was eliminated with siRNA, the effects were very similar to those seen with Hsp27 overexpression. Levels of H-2Kb-SIINFEKL decreased, and overall cell surface H-2Kb and H-2Db levels decreased. It is possible that when Hsp27 is over-expressed, it acts as a dominant negative form, conferring a similar phenotype to Hsp27 knockdown. These observations suggest that Hsp27 plays an important role in MHC class I antigen presentation.

Estudamos o efeito de Conjugação de Fase por Mistura Degenenerada de Quatro Ondas em Al2O3:Cr+3 (Rubi) e GdAlO3:Cr+3 com um laser de Ar (λ=5145 Å). Obtivemos eficiência aproximadamente quatro vezes maior no GdAlO3:Cr+3 (onde este trabalho é original) que no Rubi o que nos motivou a investigar as propriedades físicas que são relevantes para o fenômeno nestes sistemas (isto não foi bem compreendido no trabalho anterior em Rubi). Desenvolvemos um método interferométrico muito sensível para medida dos coeficientes não lineares do índice de refração n2 destes materiais (que não eram conhecidos) Com estes valores de n2 calculamos a eficiência de Conjugação de Fase em bom acordo com experiência. / We have studied the effect of Phase Conjugation by Degenerate Four Wave Mixing in Al2O3:Cr+3 (Rubi) and GdAlO3:Cr+3 with an Ar (λ=5145 Å). We obtained efficiency ?approximately? 4 times greater in GdAlO3:Cr+3 (where this work is original) than in Rubi and this have motivated us to investigate the physical properties that are important to explain this phenomenon in these materials (what wasn\'t well understood in the previous paper on Rubi(10)). We developed an interferometric method very sensitive to measure the nonlinear coeficient of refractive index n2 of these materials (what wasn\'t known). With these values of n2 we calculated the efficiency of the Phase Conjugation in good agreement with the experience.

Em trabalho anterior, identificamos a mutação c.382C8594;T no gene UBE2A, localizado em Xq24 e codificador de enzima conjugadora de ubiquitina, como causa de nova síndrome de deficiência mental (DM) de herança ligada ao cromossomo X. Foi a primeira descrição de mutação nesse gene e a primeira associação de mutação em gene que codifica conjugase de ubiquitina com patologia humana. Neste trabalho, focalizamos o gene UBE2A quanto a expressão dos transcritos alternativos, função das isoformas por eles codificadas e o efeito da mutação c.382C 8594; T como causa de deficiência mental (DM). No Capítulo I, revisamos os aspectos genéticos da DM, dando ênfase à herança ligada ao cromossomo X, principal causa de DM herdada e resumimos o estudo que levou à identificação da mutação em UBE2A como causa de quadro sindrômico de DM. Revisamos o papel da via de ubiquitinação de proteínas e das enzimas que participam do processo, em especial as conjugases de ubiquitina. Levantamos evidências na literatura que não deixam dúvida sobre a importância da via de ubiquitinação no sistema nervoso, tanto em processos de neurodesenvolvimento como neurodegeneração. No Capítulo II, avaliamos a contribuição de mutações em UBE2A como causa de DM. Apresentamos os resultados do sequenciamento direto da região codificadora do gene UBE2A em afetados de 23 famílias em que a DM segrega ligada à segmento que inclui Xq24, onde está localizado o gene UBE2A. Uma dessas famílias foi averiguada no Serviço de Aconselhamento Genético do Laboratório de Genética Humana do Departamento de Genética e Biologia Evolutiva, Instituto de Biociência, USP (LGH-IB/USP), coordenado pelo Dr. Paulo A. Otto e pela Dra. Angela Vianna Morgante. As demais 22 famílias pertencem ao banco de amostras do Consórcio Europeu de Deficiência Mental (European Mental Retardation Consortium EURO-MRX). A triagem foi também realizada em um indivíduo afetado por DM sindrômica que compartilha características clínicas com nossos pacientes. Como acontece com a maioria dos genes do cromossomo X, o gene UBE2A não parece ser responsável por parcela significativa dos casos de DM, já que novas mutações em UBE2A não foram detectadas nessa triagem. Avaliamos o efeito da mutação c.382C 8594; T nos níveis da transcrição e da tradução em homem afetado e em mulher portadora. A presença da mutação que leva a um códon de parada prematura não resultou na degradação do RNA, que detectamos nas células do afetado. Já na mulher portadora, apenas o transcrito normal foi detectado, de acordo com nossos dados anteriores que mostraram desvio completo no padrão de inativação do cromossomo X nas portadoras da mutação, tendo um mesmo cromossomo X ativo nas células do sangue. A vantagem proliferativa das células em que o cromossomo X com alelo mutado estava inativo deve ter levado a esse padrão de inativação desviado do casual, evidenciando o efeito deletério da mutação. Entretanto, o mecanismo pelo qual a mutação afeta a via de UBE2A permanece interrogado. A proteína UBE2A alterada foi encontrada em baixa quantidade nas células do paciente, o que pode ser o resultado de síntese prejudicada ou de degradação pós-traducão. Independente do mecanismo responsável, o fato de apenas uma pequena quantidade da proteína mutada ter sido encontrada, nos permite afirmar que, nas células desses indivíduos, há perda de função de UBE2A. Devemos, contudo, considerar que a proteína mutada é sintetizada e que, no caso de a menor quantidade dever-se à degradação pós-tradução, esse processo pode prejudicar a homeostase celular e contribuir para o quadro clínico. O capítulo II focaliza os transcritos alternativos de UBE2A. Diversos bancos de dados apontam para a existência de três transcritos alternativos do gene UBE2A humano, mas não há trabalho científico que caracterize os tecidos em que os transcritos são expressos ou a função das proteínas por eles codificadas. A mutação c.382C 8594; T localiza-se no éxon 6 do gene, comum a todos os transcritos, de forma que, no caso de eles codificarem proteínas funcionais, a mutação comprometeria três proteínas, e não apenas uma. Demonstramos que os três transcritos de UBE2A são xpressos em leucócitos, pré-adipócitos, placenta, córtex cerebral e hipocampo humanos. Detectamos também os três transcritos nas células de sangue e pré-adipócitos de um de nossos pacientes portador da mutação c.382C 8594; T. Embora os bancos de dados apontem para a existência de apenas um transcrito de UBE2A em camundongos, identificamos um transcrito alternativo correspondente ao transcrito alternativo 3 humano. Este foi detectado inclusive em camundongos nocaute quanto ao gene UBE2A o processo de geração do animal nocaute foi realizado por recombinação homóloga em que o cassete de neomicina foi inserido no éxon 1 do gene, de maneira que não eliminou a existência do transcrito correspondente ao transcrito 3 humano, que utiliza uma 5 UTR alternativa localizada no íntron 3. Entretanto, as proteínas codificadas pelos transcritos alternativos não foram detectadas nos extratos protéicos analisados humanos e de camundongo. Esse resultado poderia ser explicado pela falta de especificidade do anticorpo utilizado ou por essas isoformas representarem pequena parcela do pool de proteínas da célula. Os anticorpos comerciais anti-RAD6 e anti-HR6A/HR6B foram produzidos após imunização de coelhos com a porção N-terminal da isoforma 1. Seria, portanto, possível que não fossem capazes de detectar as isoformas 2 e 3, em que o segmento utilizado para a produção dos anticorpos está total ou parcialmente ausente. No caso de as proteínas estarem pouco representadas na célula, experimentos de co-imunoprecipitação auxiliariam na identificação dessas isoformas nos extratos protéicos. Entretanto, para a detecção de todas as isoformas de UBE2A seria necessário anticorpo que reconhecesse a porção C-terminal de UBE2A. Em 2009, duas novas mutações em UBE2A foram descritas em estudo colaborativo realizado no Welcome Trust Sanger Institute, Hinxton, Cambridge, Reino Unido, após sequenciamento em larga escala de aproximadamente 700 genes do cromossomo X de cerca de 200 indivíduos com DM de herança ligada ao X. Ambas as mutações c.215C 8594; T e c.328C 8594; G eram do tipo missense. Não foram fornecidas informações quanto ao quadro clínico dos portadores dessas mutações e também não foi esclarecido porque apenas a alteração c.215C 8594; T que resulta na troca do resíduo de fenilalanina da posição 72 por um resíduo de serina (F72S) foi considerada pelos autores como possivelmente patogênica. Nossos estudos in vitro, apresentados no Capítulo III, sugerem que ambas as alterações afetam a função de UBE2A. Em 2010, foram publicados dois trabalhos associando novas alterações em UBE2A a quadro de DM. Honda e col. (2010) descreveram uma microdeleção em Xq24 que inclui UBE2A e outros oito genes, em um menino com DM e características também presentes em nossos pacientes. Budny e col. (2010) descreveram mutações missense em UBE2A em duas famílias em que segregava quadro de DM sindrômica semelhante ao de nossos pacientes. Por comunicação pessoal de Arjan de Brouwer (Departamento de Genética Humana da Universidade Radboud, Nijmegen, Holanda), soubemos da existência de três outras microdeleções de segmentos do cromossomo X que incluem UBE2A, em pacientes do sexo masculino, não aparentados. Comparamos as características clínicas de nossos pacientes com as dos portadores das microdeleções em Xq24 e com aquelas dos portadores de mutações missense em UBE2A. A DM grave e o comprometimento significativo ou ausência de fala são comuns a todos. Outras características como baixa estatura, sinófris, boca grande e lábios finos com comissuras voltadas para baixo, pescoço curto e largo, implantação baixa de cabelos na nuca, mamilos espaçados, pênis pequeno, hirsutismo generalizado e a ocorrência de convulsões parecem predominar. Entretanto, enquanto a microcefalia aparece em dois dos três portadores de microdeleções avaliados, a macrocefalia parece predominar no grupo em que ocorrem as mutações de ponto. No Capítulo III, abordamos estudos funcionais in vivo e in vitro para avaliar se as isoformas alternativas de UBE2A compartilham suas funções de conjugase de ubiquitina e compreender o efeito da mutação c.382C8594;T na função de UBE2A. Buscamos estabelecer modelo celular para avaliar o efeito da mutação na formação de neuritos. Trabalho previamente publicado havia demonstrado que a diferenciação neuronal de células PC12 concomitantemente com a inibição parcial do mRNA de UBE2B (parálogo de UBE2A) resultava na redução de 20-30% do comprimento de neuritos. Entretanto, nossos ensaios de diferenciação de pré-adipócitos não responderam nossas questões sobre o efeito da mutação na formação de neuritos, pois não conseguimos obter, nas células do controle ou nas do paciente, a densidade de neuritos descrita anteriormente na diferenciação de pré-adipócitos. Diferentemente das células PC12, de origem ectodérmica, os pré-adipócitos tem origem mesodérmica, o que dificulta sua diferenciação em linhagem derivada de outro folheto germinativo. A elevada conservação entre as proteínas ortólogas UBE2A e UBE2B humanas e RAD6 de levedura e a observação de que ambas as parálogas humanas são capazes de complementar os fenótipos apresentados pela linhagem 916;rad6 de Saccharomyces cerevisiae nos levou a considerar a linhagem de levedura 916;rad6 como modelo para nossos estudos funcionais. Também, avaliamos a capacidade das isoformas 2 e 3 e da isoforma Q128X de UBE2A para ubiquitinar histonas H2A in vitro, conforme previamente descrito para a isoforma UBE2A/1. Os resultados dos ensaios in vivo indicam que apenas a expressão do transcito 1 de UBE2A é capaz de complementar os fenótipos apresentados pela linhagem 916;rad6 de S. cerevisiae. A expressão dos transcritos 2 ou 3 não resulta na restituição do fenótipo de sensibilidade à UV - a expressão gera certa toxicidade, agravada quando as células são cultivadas a 37o C. Entretanto, as isoformas por eles codificadas não parecem ser estáveis na levedura: assim como nos tecidos humanos testados, não conseguimos detectá-las nos extratos protéicos das leveduras que expressavam esses transcritos. A expressão do transcrito 1 contendo a mutação c.382CT revelou que a isoforma UBE2A/Q128X, por sua vez, é estável na linhagem 916;rad6, porém, além de não restituir o fenótipo de sensibilidade à UV, foi, dentre as isoformas de UBE2A, a mais tóxica. Os fenótipos de toxicidade não foram observados após expressão em linhagem selvagem de S. cerevisiae. Esses resultados indicam que as isoformas 2 e 3 de UBE2A não apresentam atividade de conjugase de ubiquitina e que são, aparentemente, degradadas imediatamente após sua expressão em levedura. O fato de o fenótipo de toxicidade ser agravado, em condições de choque térmico, apóia a hipótese de degradação dessas isoformas, em levedura. A degradação pode ser resultado da ausência de parceiro que permita sua estabilidade, mas a ausência das isoformas também em extratos protéicos de tecidos humanos sugere que o mesmo processo de degradação ocorra em mamíferos. Segundo a classificação das E2, as diversas conjugases de ubiquitina têm em comum o domínio UBC altamente conservado e as variações observadas consistem em inserções ou extensões C-terminais, mas nunca deleções, como ocorre nas isoformas 2 e 3 de UBE2A. Os transcritos alternativos teriam, assim, função regulatória. Os ensaios in vitro confirmaram a capacidade de UBE2A/1 ubiquitinar histonas H2A. Os ensaios com UBE2A/2 e UBE2A/3 não foram conclusivos, uma vez que a incapacidade de ubiquitinação de histonas que observamos pode ter consequência da renaturação in vitro, que pode ter ocorrido prejudicando sua função. Entretanto a obtenção das isoformas puras nos permitiu verificar que, caso a isoforma 2 estivesse presente nos extratos de levedura, ela seria reconhecida pelo anticorpo anti-RAD6. Verificamos que a proteína mutada UBE2A/Q128X é capaz de interagir com a E1, da qual recebe a molécula de ubiquitina, mas não é capaz de transferi-la para a histona. O segmento C-terminal ausente nessa isoforma é, portanto, importante nesse processo. Os ensaios in vitro despertaram nossa atenção para o fenômeno de autoubiquitinação de UBE2A, possível mecanismo de autorregulação previamente considerado na literatura. O fato de alguns trabalhos sugerirem que as E2 atuem também como dímeros in vivo e in vitro e a elevada conservação entre as parálogas humanas UBE2A e UBE2B nos levaram a considerar a possibilidade de mecanismo de regulação recíproca. Dessa maneira, a degradação de UBE2A/Q128X nas células do paciente poderia ser dependente de UBE2B. A reduzida capacidade de autoubiquitinação da isoforma mutada dificultaria sua degradação e tornaria necessária a atividade da paráloga. Isso explicaria porque ela é estável quando expressa na linhagem de levedura 916;rad6, mas não nas células do paciente. A presença de RAD6 estaria diretamente relacionada à ausência de toxicidade após a expressão de UBE2A/Q128X em linhagem selvagem a degradação da isoforma mutada está ocorrendo nessas células. A não viabilidade de camundongo duplo-nocaute quanto as parálogas UBE2A e UBE2B não permite testar a estabilidade da isoforma mutada em células de mamíferos. Observamos, de fato, que a inibição do proteassoma nas células do paciente leva ao acúmulo dessa proteína. A presença da mutação c.382C8594;T nas células do paciente parece resultar no fenótipo de DM devido à perda de função de UBE2A: a isoforma mutada não restitui o fenótipo de sensibilidade à UV de S. cerevisiae e não foi capaz de ubiquitinar histonas H2A in vitro. Além disso, indivíduos com microdeleções de UBE2A apresentam fenótipo semelhante ao de nossos pacientes. Por outro lado, a presença da proteína mutada que necessitaria de UBE2B para ser degradada pode caracterizar um ganho tóxico de função - comprometeria a função de ambas as parálogas. É possível que os dois mecanismos contribuam para o quadro clínico. Os dados dos ensaios in vivo e in vitro abrem caminhos de investigação do processo de regulação de UBE2A e UBE2B no nível da proteína, sugerindo a autoubiquitinação e a ubiquitinaão recíproca como possíveis mecanismos reguladores, que podem explicar a conservação das duas parálogas de RAD6 em mamíferos. / We have previously described a nonsense mutation (c.382C8594;T) in the UBE2A gene, at Xq24, which encodes a ubiquitin conjugating enzyme (E2), as the cause of a new X-linked mental retardation syndrome. The predicted protein lacks the 25 C-terminal amino acid residues conserved in vertebrates and in Drosophila. This was the first description of a mutation in a ubiquitin conjugating enzyme gene causative of a human disease. In the present work, we focused on the UBE2A gene, its alternative transcripts and isoforms, and the effect of the c.382C8594;T mutation. We screened for UBE2A mutations 23 males presenting X-linked mental retardation (XLMR), previously mapped to the interval encompassing this gene, and one isolated case, who shared clinical features with our previously described patients. No mutations were detected in this selected series of patients suggesting that mutations in UBE2A is not a common cause of XLMR, similarly to the majority of the XLMR genes hereto described. Very recently four Xq24 microdeletions encompassing UBE2A and three missence mutations were found by other groups in mentally retarded males that shared several clinical features with our patients. Comparing these and our patients, a clinical picture emerges of mental retardation associated with severe speech impairment, present in all of them. Short stature, large mouth with downturned corners and thin lips, short and broad neck, low posterior hairline, widely spaced nipples, marked generalized hirsutism and seizures are common features. However, microcephaly was observed only in patients carrying UBE2A deletions, while carriers of missense or nonsense mutations showed macrocephaly. We evaluated the effect of the UBE2A c.382C8594;T mutation on transcription and translation. This mutation affects the last UBE2A exon and, as expected, does not lead to nonsense mediated RNA decay, demonstrated by the presence of UBE2A mRNA in leucocytes of an affected male. However, only a small amount of the mutated protein was detected in the patients cells, suggesting the loss of UBE2A function as the cause of the syndrome. The posttranslational degradation of the mutated protein could also disturb the cellular homeostasis, a gain of function that remained a possibility. The detrimental effect of the c.382C8594;T mutation was further supported by the presence of only the normal transcript in leucocytes of a heterozygous woman, who had completely skewed X inactivation, thus pointing to the selective advantage of lymphocytes carrying the normal allele on the active X chromosome. Our search in DNA and protein sequence databases suggested that the UBE2A gene produces three alternative transcripts all classified as protein coding. These three tanscripts contain the mutation site (c.382C8594;T). We showed that all three UBE2A transcripts are expressed in human leucocytes, adipocytes, placenta, cerebral cortex and hippocampus. We also detected an alternative transcript in murine, which corresponds to the human transcript 3. This alternative transcript was present in all murine tissues analyzed, including samples from a UBE2A knockout mouse. However, we failed to detect the proteins encoded by the alternative transcripts. This could result from low affinity of the used commercial antibody to the isoforms. Alternatively, a small amount of these proteins in the pool of cellular proteins, might have not been detected by Western blotting. We performed in vivo and in vitro assays to address the role of the alternative UBE2A isoforms, and to evaluate the effect of c.382C-T mutation on UBE2A function. Taking into account the high amino acid conservation between the human UBE2A and the Saccharomyces cerevisiae ortholog RAD6, we used a 916;rad6 yeast strain to verify whether UBE2A alternative and mutated isoforms were able to complement its UV-sensitivity phenotype, as previously demosntrated for UBE2A isoform 1. We also performed in vitro assays to evaluate their ubiquitination activity towards histone H2A, a known in vitro substrate of RAD6 and UBE2A. Only UBE2A isoform 1 could rescue the UV sensitivity phenotype of the knockout yeast strain. The expression of the alternative isoforms 2 and 3 was partially toxic to this yeast strain, and toxicity increased under heat shock conditions. However, these two isoforms do not seem to be stable in yeast cells: as in human tissues, we failed to detect UBE2A isoforms 2 and 3 in yeast cells expressing the corresponding transcripts. The mutant isoform was stable in yeast, but was unable to rescue the UV-sensitivity phenotype, its expression resulting in severe toxicity to the 916;rad6 strain. On the other hand, toxicity was not observed when the mutant UBE2A isoform was expressed in wild type yeast. These findings suggest that isoforms 2 and 3 do not have ubiquitin conjugating activity and, apparently, are degraded immediately after translation. The fact that toxicity is enhanced when these isoforms are expressed under heat shock conditions supports Degradation hypothesis. The degradation could also be due to the absence of a functional partner, in yeast, that could contribute to their stability. Since the alternative isoforms were not detected in the human tissues analyzed, the degradation might occur in human cells as well. E2 enzymes share a catalytic domain and variations among them consist of insertions or terminal extensions, never deletions. Both isoforms 2 and 3 would have deletions of the catalytic domain, suggesting that they are not functional. A regulatory role for these transcripts is a possibility. Our in vitro assays confirmed that UBE2A isoform 1 is capable of histone H2A ubiquitination. The assays for isoforms 2 and 3 were inconclusive, since their lack of ubiquitin conjugating activity could be caused by incorrect in vitro refolding, required because the proteins were obtained from bacterial inclusion bodies after heterologous expression. The mutated protein, however, was able to interact with the ubiquitin molecule, but failed to transfer it to histones, thus pointing to the importance of the C-terminal segment in this process. Our in vitro assays stongly suggested that UBE2A autoubiquitination occur, an activity previously considered a possible E2 regulatory mechanism. Since there is evidence that some E2s form functional dimers, we hypothesized that, due to their high amino acid conservation, UBE2A and its paralog UBE2B might form heterodimers in vivo, as a mutual regulating mechanism. Under this hypothesis, the degradation of the mutated protein could be UBE2B dependent. The reduced autoubiquitination capacity of the mutated isoform could impair its degradation, and require the participation or the paralog. This would explain why the mutated protein was stable in the 916;rad6 yeast strain, but not in the patient´s cells with a functional UBE2B. Following the same reasoning, in wild type yeast, the presence of RAD6 would explain the absence of the mutated protein and toxicity. The non-viability of the double (UBE2A and UBE2B) knockout cells prevented testing whether the mutated protein was stable in the absence of its paralog. However, proteasome inhibition in cultured cells from one of our patients resulted in accumulation of the mutated protein, confirming its degradion via the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. In conclusion, the UBE2A c.382C8594;T mutation seems to lead to mental retardation in our patients due to loss of UBE2A function: the mutated isoform is unable to rescue the UV-sensitivity phenotype of 916;rad6 yeast or to ubiquitinate histones in vitro. In addition, patients carrying UBE2A deletions share clinical manifestations with our patients. On the other hand, the possibility remains of a clinical effect of the requirement of UBE2B for degrading the mutated UBE2A. Our data suggest reciprocal ubiquitination in addition to autoubiquitination as UBE2A and UBE2B regulatory mechanism that would explain the conservation of the two paralog genes in mammals.

L'ubiquitylation des protéines est une modification post-traductionnelle qui joue un rôle capital dans la régulation des nombreuses fonctions cellulaires, y compris la croissance cellulaire et la prolifération. Les dysfonctionnements de ce mécanisme sont à l'origine de diverses maladies telles que le cancer par exemple. Le processus d'ubiquitylation implique une série des réactions enzymatiques en cascade, catalysées par une famille des enzymes, structuralement très proches. Cette famille est composée des enzymes activateurs d'ubiquitine (E1s), des enzymes de conjugaison d'ubiquitine (E2s) et des ligases d'ubiquitine (E3s). Les interactions entre E2s et E3s sont dans le centre de la cascade d'ubiquitylation. Une combinaison particulière des pairs E2/E3 va déterminer le type de chaînes d'ubiquitine qui seront attachées à la protéine d'intérêt pour ensuite déterminer la fonction régulatrice de la voie d'ubiquitylation. A ce jour, seulement une petite fraction de paires possibles entre E2 et E3 a été investiguée par des approches biochimiques et in vitro. Cependant ces approches ne reflètent pas forcément des conditions qu'on trouve dans une cellule vivante. Prenant ceci en considération, les principales objectives de ma thèse seront comme suit : identifier et optimiser une méthode de détection et de quantification des interactions E2/E3 dans une cellule vivante de la levure de boulanger (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) ; construire une bibliothèque de souches de la levure qui permettrait d'établir des interactions entre E2 et E3 ; chercher de nouvelles potentielles paires E2/E3 ; caractériser fonctionnellement une potentielle paire E2/E2. Il est difficile de trouver une méthodologie appropriée afin d'étudier les interactions entre E2 et E3 parce qu'ils sont relativement faibles et transitoires. Leurs études nécessitent donc des techniques de détection avec une grande sensibilité. Parmi différentes techniques nous avons testé et choisi la complémentation bimoléculaire de la fluorescence, BiFC. Kurtosis, une mesure permettant localiser et quantifier la fluorescence BiFC-spécifique. Nos résultats nous nous avons permis à identifier 117 putatives paires E2/E3 parmi quels, 23 paires ont été déjà décrit dans la littérature. Parmi 94 nouvelles paires, certains E3s interagissent avec seulement une seule E2 ou d'autres donnent un signal BiFC avec plusieurs E2s. Ubc13, Ubc1 et Ubc4 sont les E2s qui interagissent le plus souvent. Nous avons identifié aussi une interaction entre les protéines Asi1 et Asi3 et les enzymes de conjugaison d'ubiquitine Ubc6 et Ubc7. Asi1 et 3 sont connus de former un complexe Asi1/3 sur la membrane intérieure du noyau impliqué dans la réponse de la cellule aux acides aminés extracellulaires. Ces protéines contiennent un domaine RING caractéristique pour les ligases d'ubiquitine mais cette activité n'était pas démontrée auparavant. / Protein ubiquitylation is a post-translational modification that plays a crucial role in regulating many cellular functions, including cell growth and proliferation. Defects in this control mechanism cause cancer and other diseases. The ubiquitylation process involves a cascade of enzymatic reactions catalyzed by a family of structurally-related enzymes, namely ubiquitin activating enzymes (E1s), ubiquitin conjugating enzymes (E2s) and ubiquitin ligases (E3s). Interactions between E2s and E3s are in the centre of ubiquitylation cascade and it is a combination of particular E2/E3 pairs that determine what types of ubiquitin chains are made, thus determining the regulatory functions of the ubiquitin pathway. To date, only a small fraction of all possible E2/E3 pairs have been investigated, mainly using biochemical and in vitro approaches that may not accurately reflect the conditions that occur in living cells. We aimed to develop a method capable of detecting specific E2-E3 interactions under physiological conditions. Using budding yeast as a model organism, we found that the Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation (BiFC) enables sensitive detection of the well described Ubc4-Ufd4 pair under endogenous conditions. The assay is specific since the interaction signal is lost in yeasts expressing Ubc4 mutants truncated in its E3 interaction domain. We then used this system to further analyze the physiological network of E2 and E3 enzymes in living yeast. We performed a microscopy screen to assay all interactions between eleven E2s and 56 E3s. Our results show that approximately 20% of all E2/E3 combinations give a detectable BiFC signal. Few E3s interacted only with a single E2, whereas most E3s produced a BiFC signal with multiple E2s. Ubc13, Ubc1 and Ubc4 were found to be the most frequently interacting E2s. Our results match many examples from current literature but we also detected 94 new E2/E3 interactions, in particular we identified an interaction between the proteins Asi1 and Asi3 and E2s Ubc6 and Ubc7. Asi1 and Asi3 are known to form a complex (the Asi1/3 complex) at the inner nuclear membrane and are involved in the regulation of the response to extracellular amino acids. The Asi1/3 complex was suspected to function as a ubiquitin ligases because they contain a RING domain, but this has previously not been demonstrated. We therefore further characterized them functionally.

L’adaptation des cellules à leur environnement externe repose sur la transduction adéquate de signaux régulés par une pléthore d'événements moléculaires. Parmi ces événements moléculaires, les modifications post-traductionnelles (MPT) de protéines aident à intégrer, à traduire et à organiser de façon spatiotemporelle ces signaux pour que les cellules puissent réagir aux stimuli externes. Parmi les modifications post-traductionnelles, les petites protéines de la famille de l’Ubiquitine (Ublps, Ubiquitin-like proteins) jouent un rôle majeur dans presque toutes les voies de signalisation. Cette thèse rapporte des études fonctionnelles et structurales des interactions covalentes et non covalentes entre SUMO (Small Ubiquitin related MOdifier), un membre de la famille des Ublps, et trois protéines d'échafaudage, TIF1beta, le corépresseur universel des protéines KRAB-multidoigt de zinc, PIAS1, une ligase E3 pour SUMO et PML, un suppresseur de tumeur. La première étude rapporte l'identification et la caractérisation biochimique des sites de SUMOylation de TIF1beta. Nous avons déterminé que la modification covalente de six résidus lysine par SUMO est essentielle à l’activité de répression de la transcription induit par TIF1beta. En outre, nous présentons des évidences indiquant que la SUMOylation de TIF1 exige non seulement sa capacité à homo-oligomériser, mais est aussi positivement régulée par son interaction avec le domaine KRAB des protéines à doigts de zinc. Partant de ce constat, nous postulons que les protéines KRAB-multidoigt de zinc recrutent leur corépresseur TIF1betaà des gènes cibles, mais aussi accentuent son activité répressive grâce à l'augmentation de sa SUMOylation. Notre seconde étude révèle qu’en plus de réprimer la transcription en tant que MPT covalente, SUMO joue aussi un rôle important dans la répression en tant que partenaire non covalent d’interactions protéine-protéine. Nous avons montré que SUMO interagit simultanément avec deux enzymes de la machinerie de SUMOylation, l’unique enzyme de conjugaison E2, UBC9, et la ligase E3 PIAS1 au sein d’un complexe ternaire répresseur. En outre, nous révélons que la formation du complexe ternaire PIAS1:SUMO:UBC9 est modulée par le niveau de phosphorylation de résidus sérine juxtaposés à un motif d’interaction avec SUMO (SIM) dans PIAS1. Ainsi, SUMO agit comme un adaptateur spécifique qui stabilise les interactions UBC9 E2: E3 PIAS1. Partant de ce constat, nous proposons que les enzymes E2 et E3 des autres systèmes Ublps exploitent des mécanismes similaires dans le cadre de leur fonction Enfin, notre troisième étude explore la régulation des interactions non covalentes de SUMO par la phosphorylation. En utilisant une combinaison d'études in vivo et in vitro, nous démontrons que l'interaction entre SUMO1 et PML est régi par la phosphorylation dépendant de CK2 sur quatre résidus sérine de PML. Les structures cristallographiques des complexes PML-SIM:SUMO1 révèlent que les phospho-sérines de PML contactent des résidus de la région basique de SUMO1. Sachant que la kinase CK2 peut être induite par des kinases activables par le stress, ces résultats suggèrent que les interactions non-covalentes avec SUMO sont modulées par le stress cellulaire. Sur la base de cette constatation, nous postulons que des événements analogues affectent des protéines contenant des séquences SIM ciblées par CK2. En résumé, cette étude révèle qu’en plus de son rôle de MPT, SUMO peut fonctionner comme un adaptateur permettant des interactions spécifiques entre protéines tel que pour les enzymes E3 et E2. / Cell adaption to the external environment relies on proper signal transduction that is orchestrated by a plethora of molecular events. Among these molecular events, post-translational modifications (PTMs) of proteins help to spatiotemporally integrate, translate and dispatch signals so cells can respond to external stimuli. Among these post-translational modifications, the Ubiquitin-like proteins (Ublps) play a major role in almost all signaling pathways. This thesis reports functional and structural studies of the covalent and non-covalent interactions between the Small Ubiquitin-related MOdifier (SUMO), a member of the Ublps family, and three scaffold proteins, TIF1beta, the corepressor of KRAB-Multifinger proteins, PIAS1, a SUMO E3 ligase and the Promyleocytic leukemia (PML) tumor suppressor protein. The first study reports the identification and the biochemical characterization of TIF1betaSUMOylation sites. We mapped six SUMOylation sites in TIF1beta and determined that the covalent modification of these sites by SUMO is essential for its transcriptional repression activity. In addition, we present evidence indicating that SUMOylation of TIF1beta requires not only its ability to homo-oligomerize, but is positively regulated through its interaction with KRAB domains found in zinc-finger proteins. Based on this finding, we postulate that these KRAB domain containing multifinger proteins not only recruit TIF1beta co-repressor to target genes but also increase its repressive activity through enhancement of its SUMOylation. The work in the second study reveals that in addition to suppressing transcription as a covalent PTM, SUMO plays an important role in repression as a non-covalent protein-protein interaction partner. We determine that SUMO can form a repressive complex by simultaneously forming non-covalent interactions with UBC9 and PIAS1, the E2 and E3 enzymes in the SUMOylation system. In addition, we report that the formation of the PIAS1:SUMO:UBC9 ternary complex is modulated by the phosphorylation of serine residues juxtaposed to a SUMO-Interacting Motif (SIM) found in PIAS1. Thus SUMO acts as a specific adaptor that stabilizes UBC9 E2: PIAS1 E3 interactions. Based on this finding, we propose that the E2 and E3 enzymes from other Ublps systems exploit similar mechanisms as part of their function Finally, our third study explores the regulation of SUMO non-covalent interactions by phosphorylation. Using a combination of in vivo and in vitro studies we demonstrate that the interaction between SUMO1 and PML is governed by CK2-dependent phosphorylation of four serine residues in PML. Crystal structures of PML-SIM:SUMO1 complexes reveal that these PML phospho-serine specifically contact SUMO1 basic patch residues. Since CK2 kinase is induced by stress activated kinases pathways, this indicates that SUMO non-covalent interactions are regulated by cellular stress. Based on this finding, we postulated that analogous events influence other CK2-targeted SIM-containing proteins. In summary, this study reveals that in addition to its well described function as PTM, SUMO can function as an adaptor enabling specific proteins interactions such as functional E3:E2 enzymes pairs.

Ubiquitinierungen sind dynamische, posttranslationale Proteinmarkierungen, die eine Vielzahl zellulärer Reaktionen hervorrufen. Die strukturell unterschiedlichen Signale werden von einer Ubiquitinierungsmaschinerie, bestehend aus E1-, E2- und E3-Enzymen, aufgebaut. Die Synthese von Polyubiquitin wird durch ubiquitinbindende Domänen (UBD) innerhalb der enzymatischen Kaskade stimuliert. Das E2-Enzym Ubc7 katalysiert zusammen mit dessen Kofaktor Cue1 die Polymerisierung von Ubiquitineinheiten und kennzeichnet Substratproteine mit Lysin 48 (K48)-ver¬knüpf¬ten Ubiquitinketten für den Endoplasmatische Retikulum-assoziierten Proteinabbau (ER-associated protein degradation, ERAD). In dieser Arbeit konnte mittels in vitro rekonstitu¬ierter Ubiquitinierungsreaktionen die Funktionsweise der ubiquitinbindenden CUE-Domäne von Cue1 während der Synthese von Polyubiquitin aufgeklärt werden. Verlängerungs¬reaktionen von Ubiquitinketten konnten durch Fluoreszenzmessungen verfolgt und die CUE-Domäne als Substratrezeptor von Ubc7 beschrieben werden. Anscheinend erhöht die Ubiquitin¬bindung durch Cue1 die lokale Konzentration von Ubc7 an den Ketten und positio¬niert das E2-Enzym effizient für die Übertragung der gebundenen Ubiquiti-neinheit. Die Reaktionen werden durch eine Bindungspräferenz der Cue1-CUE-Domäne für K48-ver¬knüpfte Ubiquitinmoleküle zusätzlich beschleunigt. Es ist bekannt, dass UBDs Ubiquitin¬signale entschlüsseln. Die Charakterisierung der CUE-Domäne beschreibt eine Notwendigkeit der Bindung von Ubiquitin bereits während der Entstehung von Polyubiquitin. Neben den E3-Ubiquitinligasen existieren Deubiquitinasen (DUB), die an der Reifung und dem Abbau von Ubiquitinsignalen beteiligt sind. Die proteasomalen DUBs Ubp6 und Rpn11 zeigen basale Aktivitäten in Isolation, die eingebunden in den 26S-Komplex moduliert werden. Fluoreszenz-basierte Untersuchungen von Kettenabbaureaktionen lassen erste Schlüsse über die Spezifitäten und die Abbaumechanismen der Enzyme zu. / Polyubiquitination is an essential process modulating protein function in eukaryotic cells. Only recently ubiquitin binding activity has emerged as an important factor in ubiquitin chain assembly. Cue1 is a crucial component of yeast endoplasmic reticulum associated protein degradation complexes which recruits and activates the E2 ubiquitin conjugating enzyme Ubc7. Our NMR solution structure reveals an unconventional CUE domain of Cue1 that substantially stimulates ubiquitin chain elongation by Ubc7.Results from NMR analysis combined with interaction studies and in vitro ubiquitination reactions imply that binding of CUE to a ubiquitin moiety adjacent to the acceptor ubiquitin is a prerequisite for rapid chain elongation. By this mode of action, the CUE domain counteracts the inability of associated Ubc7, to progressively elongate ubiquitin chains. Elongation of K48-linked ubiquitin chains is additionally accelerated since the CUE domain preferentially binds chains of K48-linkage. Our data support a model, where dynamic binding of ubiquitin chains assist to position Ubc7 for rapid elongation of K48-linked chains. Thus, the CUE domain acts as acceleration factor of elongation. Our study provides detailed mechanistic insight into how a ubiquitin binding domain governs polyubiquitin chain formation.

The main objective of this thesis dissertation is functionally characterizing the genes involved in biotic and abiotic stresses of plants at molecular level. Previously, upon pathogen attack Rad6 gene expression was found to be changed in wheat and barley plants. To functionally characterize the Rad6 gene, VIGS (Virus induced gene silencing) system was used. HR (Hypersensitive response) like symptoms was detected in every silenced barley and wheat plants. To figure out, transcriptomes and proteomes of Rad6 silenced plants were analyzed. 2-D PAGE analysis was also performed on silenced and control wheat plants. No pathogen growth was observed in Rad6 silenced barley lines. Additionally, the susceptible wild type Arabidopsis plants showed resistant phenotype when any of the Rad6 gene copies is mutated. This suggests that Rad6 gene has a negative regulatory role in plant disease resistance which was proved for the first time. Yeast two hybrid protein interaction study suggests that RAD6 carrying out its function by interacting with SGT1 protein and regulating resistance related genes. It has been first time reported in this thesis that E2 (Ubiquitin conjugating enzyme) takes role in plant disease resistance. Boron which is the other consideration in the scope of thesis as an abiotic stress factor at a very limited amount is necessary for the normal development of plants. This study is conducted on highly boron tolerant Gypsophila perfoliata L. collected from a location in the boron mining area. The plant samples were tested in the presence of high boron (35 mg/kg) concentrations. The transcriptomes of the plant samples treated with the excess levels of boron to that of the samples grown under normal concentration were compared using differential display PCR method. Thirty bands showing differential expression levels at varying time points were analyzed. 18 of them were confirmed via qRT-PCR.

L’adaptation des cellules à leur environnement externe repose sur la transduction adéquate de signaux régulés par une pléthore d'événements moléculaires. Parmi ces événements moléculaires, les modifications post-traductionnelles (MPT) de protéines aident à intégrer, à traduire et à organiser de façon spatiotemporelle ces signaux pour que les cellules puissent réagir aux stimuli externes. Parmi les modifications post-traductionnelles, les petites protéines de la famille de l’Ubiquitine (Ublps, Ubiquitin-like proteins) jouent un rôle majeur dans presque toutes les voies de signalisation. Cette thèse rapporte des études fonctionnelles et structurales des interactions covalentes et non covalentes entre SUMO (Small Ubiquitin related MOdifier), un membre de la famille des Ublps, et trois protéines d'échafaudage, TIF1beta, le corépresseur universel des protéines KRAB-multidoigt de zinc, PIAS1, une ligase E3 pour SUMO et PML, un suppresseur de tumeur. La première étude rapporte l'identification et la caractérisation biochimique des sites de SUMOylation de TIF1beta. Nous avons déterminé que la modification covalente de six résidus lysine par SUMO est essentielle à l’activité de répression de la transcription induit par TIF1beta. En outre, nous présentons des évidences indiquant que la SUMOylation de TIF1 exige non seulement sa capacité à homo-oligomériser, mais est aussi positivement régulée par son interaction avec le domaine KRAB des protéines à doigts de zinc. Partant de ce constat, nous postulons que les protéines KRAB-multidoigt de zinc recrutent leur corépresseur TIF1betaà des gènes cibles, mais aussi accentuent son activité répressive grâce à l'augmentation de sa SUMOylation. Notre seconde étude révèle qu’en plus de réprimer la transcription en tant que MPT covalente, SUMO joue aussi un rôle important dans la répression en tant que partenaire non covalent d’interactions protéine-protéine. Nous avons montré que SUMO interagit simultanément avec deux enzymes de la machinerie de SUMOylation, l’unique enzyme de conjugaison E2, UBC9, et la ligase E3 PIAS1 au sein d’un complexe ternaire répresseur. En outre, nous révélons que la formation du complexe ternaire PIAS1:SUMO:UBC9 est modulée par le niveau de phosphorylation de résidus sérine juxtaposés à un motif d’interaction avec SUMO (SIM) dans PIAS1. Ainsi, SUMO agit comme un adaptateur spécifique qui stabilise les interactions UBC9 E2: E3 PIAS1. Partant de ce constat, nous proposons que les enzymes E2 et E3 des autres systèmes Ublps exploitent des mécanismes similaires dans le cadre de leur fonction Enfin, notre troisième étude explore la régulation des interactions non covalentes de SUMO par la phosphorylation. En utilisant une combinaison d'études in vivo et in vitro, nous démontrons que l'interaction entre SUMO1 et PML est régi par la phosphorylation dépendant de CK2 sur quatre résidus sérine de PML. Les structures cristallographiques des complexes PML-SIM:SUMO1 révèlent que les phospho-sérines de PML contactent des résidus de la région basique de SUMO1. Sachant que la kinase CK2 peut être induite par des kinases activables par le stress, ces résultats suggèrent que les interactions non-covalentes avec SUMO sont modulées par le stress cellulaire. Sur la base de cette constatation, nous postulons que des événements analogues affectent des protéines contenant des séquences SIM ciblées par CK2. En résumé, cette étude révèle qu’en plus de son rôle de MPT, SUMO peut fonctionner comme un adaptateur permettant des interactions spécifiques entre protéines tel que pour les enzymes E3 et E2. / Cell adaption to the external environment relies on proper signal transduction that is orchestrated by a plethora of molecular events. Among these molecular events, post-translational modifications (PTMs) of proteins help to spatiotemporally integrate, translate and dispatch signals so cells can respond to external stimuli. Among these post-translational modifications, the Ubiquitin-like proteins (Ublps) play a major role in almost all signaling pathways. This thesis reports functional and structural studies of the covalent and non-covalent interactions between the Small Ubiquitin-related MOdifier (SUMO), a member of the Ublps family, and three scaffold proteins, TIF1beta, the corepressor of KRAB-Multifinger proteins, PIAS1, a SUMO E3 ligase and the Promyleocytic leukemia (PML) tumor suppressor protein. The first study reports the identification and the biochemical characterization of TIF1betaSUMOylation sites. We mapped six SUMOylation sites in TIF1beta and determined that the covalent modification of these sites by SUMO is essential for its transcriptional repression activity. In addition, we present evidence indicating that SUMOylation of TIF1beta requires not only its ability to homo-oligomerize, but is positively regulated through its interaction with KRAB domains found in zinc-finger proteins. Based on this finding, we postulate that these KRAB domain containing multifinger proteins not only recruit TIF1beta co-repressor to target genes but also increase its repressive activity through enhancement of its SUMOylation. The work in the second study reveals that in addition to suppressing transcription as a covalent PTM, SUMO plays an important role in repression as a non-covalent protein-protein interaction partner. We determine that SUMO can form a repressive complex by simultaneously forming non-covalent interactions with UBC9 and PIAS1, the E2 and E3 enzymes in the SUMOylation system. In addition, we report that the formation of the PIAS1:SUMO:UBC9 ternary complex is modulated by the phosphorylation of serine residues juxtaposed to a SUMO-Interacting Motif (SIM) found in PIAS1. Thus SUMO acts as a specific adaptor that stabilizes UBC9 E2: PIAS1 E3 interactions. Based on this finding, we propose that the E2 and E3 enzymes from other Ublps systems exploit similar mechanisms as part of their function Finally, our third study explores the regulation of SUMO non-covalent interactions by phosphorylation. Using a combination of in vivo and in vitro studies we demonstrate that the interaction between SUMO1 and PML is governed by CK2-dependent phosphorylation of four serine residues in PML. Crystal structures of PML-SIM:SUMO1 complexes reveal that these PML phospho-serine specifically contact SUMO1 basic patch residues. Since CK2 kinase is induced by stress activated kinases pathways, this indicates that SUMO non-covalent interactions are regulated by cellular stress. Based on this finding, we postulated that analogous events influence other CK2-targeted SIM-containing proteins. In summary, this study reveals that in addition to its well described function as PTM, SUMO can function as an adaptor enabling specific proteins interactions such as functional E3:E2 enzymes pairs.

Ubiquitinierung ist eine essentielle posttranslationale Proteinmodifikation (PTM), die vielfältige Prozesse in eukaryotischen Zellen steuert. Ubiquitin wird zu unterschiedlichen polymeren Ketten zusammengesetzt, wobei E2-Ubiquitin-konjugierende Enzyme häufig eine entscheidende Rolle spielen. Im Rahmen meiner Promotion habe ich die molekularen Grundlagen der Ub Kettensynthese durch die E2-Enzyme Ubc1 und Ubc7 untersucht. Dies geschah mithilfe von in vitro Ubiquitinierungs-Reaktionen, biochemischen und strukturellen Untersuchungen sowie zellbiologischen Experimenten. Ich konnte zeigen, dass zugehörige Ubiquitin-Binde-Domänen (UBDs) die Funktion der E2-Enzyme maßgeblich regulieren. Als einziges unter elf E2-Enzymen in S. cerevisiae enthält Ubc1 eine Ub-bindende UBA Domäne, deren Funktion bisher unklar blieb. Ubc1 modifiziert ausschließlich Lysin 48 (K48) in Ub und wurde mit Proteinqualitätskontrolle sowie der Regulation des Zellzyklus in Verbindung gebracht. Meine Ergebnisse zeigen, dass Ubc1 mithilfe seiner UBA-Domäne vorzugsweise mit K63-verknüpftem Polyubiquitin interagiert, wodurch K48/K63 verzweigte Ub-Ketten entstehen. Basierend auf vorhandenen Strukturinformationen und meinen eigenen röntgenkristallographischen Untersuchungen zeige ich eine Modellstruktur für die Reaktion auf. Meine Ergebnisse stellen eine wesentliche Untersuchungsgrundlage für verzweigten Ub-Ketten dar, über deren Vorkommen und Funktion bisher wenig bekannt ist. Ubc7 assembliert mithilfe seines Kofaktors Cue1 K48-verknüpfte Ub-Ketten im Rahmen des Endoplasmatisches-Retikulum-assoziierten Proteinabbaus (ERAD). In einem kollaborativen Projekt haben wir die Ub-bindende CUE-Domäne in Cue1, die hierfür eine Schlüsselrolle spielt, untersucht. Sie ermöglicht die Ausrichtung des E2-Enzyms an der distalen Spitze der Ub-Kette für eine schnelle Kettenverlängerung, besitzt einzigartige auf den Prozess angepasste Bindungseigenschaften und ihre Beeinträchtigung stört den Abbau des ERAD-Substrates Ubc6. / Ubiquitination is an essential posttranslational protein modification (PTM) that regulates widespread intracellular processes in eukaryotic cells. Ubiquitin (Ub) can be assembled into polymeric chains through its seven internal lysine residues and the N-terminus enabling the formation of a complex "Ubiquitin Code". Factors that guide the molecular machinery which produces this code remain poorly understood. In this study, I demonstrate that ubiquitin binding domains (UBDs) associated with the E2 enzymes Ubc1 and Ubc7 substantially contribute to the assembly of particular Ub chains. Uniquely among the eleven E2 enzymes of S. cerevisiae Ubc1 contains a ubiquitin binding UBA domain. Ubc1 exclusively modifies lysine 48 (K48) in Ub and has been implicated in protein quality control and cell cycle progression. However, the function of its UBA domain remained elusive. I identified Ubc1 to preferentially target specific Ub molecules in K63-linked polyubiquitin via its UBA domain. This activity results in the assembly of K48/K63 branched Ub chains. Based on existing structural information and my own X-ray crystallographic experiments, I propose a structure for the transition state of branched chain assembly by Ubc1. My findings provide a basis for the study of this unusual Ub chain type. Ubc7 has previously been shown to be activated by its co-factor Cue1 to assemble Ub chains linked through lysine 48 (K48) in the context of endoplasmic reticulum associated protein degradation (ERAD). In collaboration with Dr. Maximilian von Delbrück and Dr. Andreas Kniss, we identified the ubiquitin binding CUE domain in Cue1 to play a key role in aligning Ubc7 with the distal tip of a K48-linked Ub chain for rapid chain elongation. Furthermore, we showed how binding of Ub by the CUE domain is well adapted towards the chain elongation process and how its disruption impairs degradation of the ERAD substrate Ubc6.

Abstract Mutations in the currently known breast cancer susceptibility genes account for only 25–30% of all familial cases. Novel susceptibility genes can be identified by several methods, including candidate gene re-sequencing and genome-wide microarrays. We have applied microarrays for the detection of a new genomic variation class, copy number variants (CNVs), which potentially could disrupt genes in multiple pathways related to breast cancer susceptibility. The aim of the current study was to evaluate the role of the RNF8, UBC13, MMS2 and RAD51C DNA damage response genes in breast cancer susceptibility as well as to study if rare CNVs are associated with the predisposition to this disease. The analysis of 123 familial breast cancer cases revealed altogether nine different changes in the RNF8 and UBC13 candidate genes. However, none of the observed alterations were considered pathogenic. No alterations were observed in MMS2. The obtained results suggest that breast cancer predisposing alterations in RNF8, UBC13 and MMS2 are rare, or even absent. The RAD51C mutation screening of 147 familial breast cancer cases and 232 unselected ovarian cancer cases revealed two deleterious mutations: c.-13_14del27 was observed in a breast cancer case with familial history of ovarian cancer and c.774delT in an ovarian cancer case. Both mutations were absent in the control cohort. The results of the study support the hypothesis that rare variants of RAD51C predispose predominantly to ovarian cancer. A genome-wide scan of CNVs was performed for 103 familial breast cancer cases and 128 controls. The biological networks of the genes disrupted by CNVs were different between the two groups. In familial breast cancer cases, the observed mutations disrupted genes, which were significantly overrepresented in cellular functions related to maintenance of genomic integrity (P=0.0211). Biological network analysis showed that the disrupted genes were closely related to estrogen signaling and TP53-centered tumor suppressor network, and this result was confirmed by the analysis of an independent young breast cancer cohort of 75 cases. These results suggest that rare CNVs represent an alternative source of genetic variation contributing to hereditary risk for breast cancer. / Tiivistelmä Tunnetut rintasyöpäalttiusgeenien mutaatiot selittävät vain 25–30 prosenttia kaikista perinnöllisistä rintasyöpätapauksista. Uusia alttiusgeenejä voidaan tunnistaa useilla eri menetelmillä, kuten kandidaattigeenien mutaatiokartoituksella ja genomin-laajuisilla mikrosirutekniikoilla. Tässä tutkimuksessa sovelsimme mikrosirutekniikkaa uuden geneettisen variaatioluokan, kopiolukuvariaation (CNV), tutkimiseen. CNV:t voivat vaurioittaa lukuisia rintasyöpäalttiuteen liittyviä biokemiallisia reittejä. Tämän tutkimuksen tarkoitus oli arvioida RNF8-, UBC13-, MMS2- ja RAD51C -DNA- vauriovastegeenien sekä harvinaisten CNV:iden yhteyttä rintasyöpä-alttiuteen. 123 familiaalisen rintasyöpätapauksen analyysissä löytyi yhteensä yhdeksän muutosta RNF8- ja UBC13-geeneistä, joista yksikään ei osoittautunut patogeeniseksi. MMS2-geenissä ei havaittu muutoksia. Tulosten perusteella rintasyövälle altistavat muutokset RNF8-, UBC13- ja MMS2- geeneissä ovat joko erittäin harvinaisia tai niitä ei esiinny lainkaan. RAD51C-geenin mutaatiokartoitus 147 familiaalisesta rintasyöpätapauksesta sekä 232 valikoimattomasta munasarjasyöpätapauksesta paljasti kaksi haitallista mutaatiota. c.-13_14del27 havaittiin rintasyöpäpotilaalla, jonka suvussa esiintyi munasarjasyöpää, ja c.774delT todettiin munasarjasyöpäpotilaalta. Kumpaakaan mutaatiota ei havaittu verrokkiaineistossa. Tulokset vahvistavat hypoteesia RAD51C-geenin harvinaisten varianttien yhteydestä pääasiassa munasarjasyöpäriskiin. CNV:iden genomin-laajuinen skannaaminen suoritettiin 103 familiaaliselle rintasyöpätapaukselle ja 128 verrokille. CNV:iden häiritsemien geenien muodostamat biologiset verkostot olivat erilaiset näiden kahden ryhmän välillä. Familiaalisilla rintasyöpätapauksilla havaitut CNV:t vaikuttivat geeneihin, jotka olivat voimakkaasti korostuneita genomin eheyttä ylläpitävissä tehtävissä (P=0.0211). Biologisten verkostojen analyysi paljasti, että CNV:iden vahingoittamat geenit liittyivät läheisesti estrogeenisignalointiin sekä TP53-tuumorisupressoriverkostoon, ja tämä tulos vahvistettiin analysoimalla riippumatonta nuorista rintasyöpäpotilaista koostuvaa kohorttia (N=75). Tutkimuksen tulosten mukaan harvinaiset CNV:t ovat vaihtoehtoinen geneettisen variaation lähde perinnölliseen rintasyöpäalttiuteen.