A presente dissertação trata de situações nas quais o prejuízo decorre de conduta praticada por parcela de indivíduos integrantes de agrupamento, sem que seja possível identificá-los. No âmbito do nexo causal, essa hipótese se traduz no conceito de causalidade alternativa, e a maior controvérsia relacionada ao tema é definir se, e em quais circunstâncias, há responsabilidade solidária de todos os integrantes do agrupamento. Para analisar essas questões, o presente trabalho apresenta capítulo introdutório, cujo foco recai sobre as diversas doutrinas desenvolvidas a respeito da causalidade. O espoco desse exame é analisar como essas teorias descrevem o fenômeno entre causa e efeito e, ainda, como os doutrinadores e a jurisprudência lidam com elas ao se defrontar com situações envolvendo diversas causas potenciais relacionadas a determinado evento. Tendo a parte introdutória como base, a dissertação analisa especificamente a causalidade alternativa sob perspectiva histórica, tecendo considerações sobre o desenvolvimento do conceito ao longo do tempo. A dissertação ingressa, então, na análise da causalidade alternativa em diversas jurisdições. O propósito dessa parte do trabalho é examinar as diferentes perspectivas adotadas por doutrinadores e cortes estrangeiras em relação a cenários envolvendo danos cometidos por grupos de diversos indivíduos, sem que seja possível identificar o verdadeiro ofensor. A parte final da dissertação trata especificamente do fenômeno da causalidade alternativa no direito brasileiro. O trabalho analisa essa matéria examinando algumas decisões relevantes dos tribunais, juntamente com opiniões de doutrinadores relacionadas ao tema. Também há o contraste das diversas teorias desenvolvidas para explicar a solidariedade dos integrantes do grupo com o regime jurídico estabelecido no Código Civil brasileiro, enfatizando-se as potenciais deficiências de cada doutrina. A partir dessa análise, e das principais conclusões decorrentes da pesquisa desenvolvida nos demais capítulos, a parte final da dissertação propõe (i) uma explicação que justifica a solidariedade dos indivíduos que integram um grupo; e (ii) os critérios para definir as circunstâncias nas quais essa espécie de responsabilidade se aplica. O trabalho propõe, ainda, a alteração no Código Civil brasileiro, com a inclusão de normas específicas acerca da causalidade alternativa. / This thesis approaches situations wherein damage arises from conducts incurred by one or several individuals that compose a group, being altogether impossible to identify the actual torfeasors. In terms of causation, this situation is usually known as alternative causation, and the main controversy arising from such scenario is whether and under which circumstances all members of the group should be held liable for damages. In order to analyze these issues, the present work brings an introductory chapter, which focuses on the several theories developed with respect to the concept of causation. This aims at verifying how such doctrines describe the cause-and-effect phenomenon, and the way scholar and courts handle with these doctrines whereas facing situations involving several causes potentially related to a certain outcome. Having the first part as a conceptual background, the dissertation specifically approaches the alternative causation under a historical perspective, particularly concerning the development of such concept throughout relevant moments of history. The dissertation then moves to the analysis of the concept of alternative causation in several jurisdictions. The purpose of that part of the work is to verify the different perspectives adopted by foreign scholars and courts as to the scenarios involving damages performed by members of a group, wherein it is altogether impossible to identify the actual tortfeasors. The final part of the dissertation deals particularly with the phenomenon of alternative causation under Brazilian law. The work approaches this subject by examining some relevant court decisions and opinion of scholars related to the issue. It also contrasts the several doctrines developed to explain the joint liability of the members of the group with the legal regime established by the Brazilian Civil Code, stressing the flaws applicable to each of them. Relying upon this analysis, and on main elements arising from the analysis carried out in the previous chapters, the final part of the dissertation proposes (i) an explanation to justify the joint liability applicable to individuals that compose a group of potential tortfeasors; and (ii) the criteria to define the circumstances wherein this sort of liability prevails. It also proposes the amendment of the Brazilian Civil Code, in order to include specific regulation regarding alternative causation.

O presente estudo, a partir da constatação de que ainda existe grande indefinição acerca do que consiste a figura do dano social, tem como objetivo investigar a possibilidade de se extrair critérios da jurisprudência que permitam a construção de um conceito uniforme que possa ser indistintamente aplicado a todas as situações fáticas, e que seja capaz de assegurar, no plano prático, maior previsibilidade e uniformidade das decisões judiciais. Para tanto, faz-se uma breve análise das modernas tendências da responsabilidade civil, especialmente da expansão dos danos indenizáveis, com o intuito de demonstrar que o reconhecimento do dano social (ou qualquer outra denominação que se atribua ao mesmo fenômeno) é decorrência do atual estágio evolutivo de uma sociedade em que o aumento do potencial lesivo e o abandono do paradigma liberal individual-patrimonialista conduziu à coletivização dos direitos, cuja violação passou a ser objeto de reparação. Além disso, busca-se compreender como os temas do dano social e do dano moral coletivo, que muitas vezes são tratados como sinônimos pela jurisprudência, têm sido tratados pela doutrina, sem deixar de analisar, ainda, os principais aspectos dos instrumentos coletivos de reparação civil, com destaque para os princípios e para as modernas tendências apontadas no âmbito das ações coletivas. Sob o ponto de vista processual, parte-se da premissa de que a motivação se constitui instrumento para a efetividade de direito, pois assegura o controle da racionalidade e da legitimação das decisões judiciais. Desse modo, considerando que é na fundamentação que o julgador, a partir do substrato fático, realizará o enquadramento jurídico da questão, passa-se à análise da motivação das decisões judiciais dos Tribunais de Justiça e Tribunais Regionais do Trabalho selecionados, chegando-se à conclusão de que, não obstante, ontologicamente, o dano social e o dano moral coletivo perante a jurisprudência possuam os mesmos elementos caracterizadores, a fragilidade dos argumentos, aliada à ausência de aprofundamento teórico nas decisões judiciais, que se utilizam, na maior parte das vezes, dos mesmos referenciais teóricos e de termos abertos e indeterminados para designar o instituto, ao qual se sugere a denominação de \"dano extrapatrimonial coletivo\", inviabilizam a extração de critérios objetivos para a seleção dos danos merecedores de tutela, exigindo um aprimoramento teórico das fundamentações neste particular. / The present study, based on the observation that there is still a great amount of uncertainty of what constitutes the social damage, aims to investigate the possibility of extracting criteria from jurisprudence that allow the construction of a uniform concept that can be applied indistinctly to all factual situations, and to ensure, on a practical level, greater predictability and uniformity of judicial decisions. In order to do so, a brief analysis of the modern tendencies of civil liability, especially of the expansion of the indemnifiable damages, with the intention of demonstrating that the recognition of the social damage (or any denomination that is attributed to the same phenomenon) is due to the stage evolution of a society in which the increase of the harmful potential and the abandonment of the liberal individual-patrimonialist paradigm led to the collectivization of rights, whose violation became subject to redress. In addition, it seeks to understand how the themes of social damage and collective moral damage, which are often treated as synonyms by jurisprudence, have been treated by the doctrine, while still analyzing the main aspects of collective reparation instruments, highlighting the principles and the modern trends pointed out in the scope of collective actions. From the procedural point of view, it is based on the premise that motivation constitutes an instrument for the effectiveness of law, since it ensures the control of the rationality and legitimacy of judicial decisions. Thus, considering that it is in the grounds that the judge, based on the factual substrate, will carry out the legal framework of the issue, we proceed to analyze the motivation of the judicial decisions of the Courts of Justice and Selected Regional Labor Courts, coming to however, ontologically the social damage and collective moral damage to the jurisprudence have the same characterizing elements, the fragility of the arguments, allied to the lack of theoretical deepening in the judicial decisions, that are used, in most cases, the same theoretical references and open and indeterminate terms to designate the institute, for which is suggested the denomination of \"collective off-balance damage\", make it impossible to extract objective criteria for the selection of damages worthy of guardianship, requiring a theoretical improvement of the grounds in this particular.

This work describes the greatest flood damages in Czech Republic, the ways, how were this damages deleted and role of other public institutions in this process. It describes the role of commercial insturance companies, changes in its access and last but not least about spending programs connected with damages caused by floods.

As negociações na fase pré-contratual permitem às partes determinarem de que forma certa operação econômica será concretizada e cumprida por cada um dos particulares, materializando-se como importante ferramenta para as partes estabelecerem, consensual e racionalmente, as melhores alternativas em termos de eficiência que estão à disposição. Inexistem rigidez e regramento específico no processo negocial, estando seu desenvolvimento submetido aos interesses e às pretensões de cada um dos negociantes, e o seu resultado varia de acordo com o tipo de negociação, as estratégias adotadas e o poder de barganha individual. Não obstante, há outros fatores que também condicionam o desenrolar e o desfecho deste processo, mas em geral impedindo a obtenção de resultados tão benéficos quanto os que poderiam ser alcançados em um paralelo livre de ineficiências. Em um mundo factual as partes precisam lidar com as adversidades existentes nas negociações se desejarem concluir o contrato e dele se beneficiar, seja por meio de medidas particulares ou por intermédio de soluções regulatórias, as quais têm a missão de fornecerem adequados incentivos para sua aplicação tornar-se socialmente desejável. Além disso, em virtude de as negociações serem norteadas pela autonomia de vontade e liberdade contratual, sem deveres de vinculação, os atos de exercício destes direitos devem ser medidos para que não produzam lesões ao patrimônio jurídico dos demais envolvidos nas tratativas. Tal controle é exercido pela incidência da boa-fé objetiva na fase pré-contratual, a qual impõe deveres de conduta aos particulares durante as negociações. Também é a regra da boa-fé o supedâneo da responsabilidade civil para recomposição dos prejuízos advindos de situações que malfiram a confiança gerada ao longo das tratativas, daí que o conteúdo da indenização nestas hipóteses deve considerar as justas expectativas criadas pelas partes e ser balizado para que o lesado não acabe em situação melhor do que estaria se o eventual contrato tivesse sido concluído e integralmente cumprido. / Negotiations in the pre-contractual stage allow the parties to determine how a certain economic operation will be carried out and fulfilled by each of the individuals, and is an important tool for the parties to establish, in a consensual and rational manner, the best alternatives available in terms of efficiency. There is no rigidity or specific regulation in the negotiation process, in such way that its development is submitted to the interests and the pretensions of each one of the traders, and its result varies according to the type of negotiation, strategies adopted and individual bargaining power. There are other factors that also condition the unfolding and outcome of this process, but generally preventing the achievement of results as beneficial as those that could be achieved in an inefficiency-free parallel. In a factual world, the parties need to deal with the adversities in the negotiations if they wish to conclude the contract and benefit from it, either through particular measures or through regulatory solutions, which have the task of providing adequate incentives so that their implementation is socially desirable. Moreover, because the negotiations are guided by the autonomy of will and contractual freedom, without binding obligations, the exercise of these rights must be measured so that they do not produce damages to the legal patrimony of others involved in the negotiations. Such control is exercised by the incidence of objective good faith in the pre-contractual phase, which imposes conduct duties on individuals during the negotiations. It is also the rule of good faith the foundation of civil liability for the recovery of damages arising from situations that mislead the confidence generated during the negotiations, hence the content of compensation in these cases must consider the fair expectations created by the parties and be restricted so that the injured party does not end up in a better situation than it would have been if the contract had been completed and fully complied with.

O presente estudo, a partir da constatação de que ainda existe grande indefinição acerca do que consiste a figura do dano social, tem como objetivo investigar a possibilidade de se extrair critérios da jurisprudência que permitam a construção de um conceito uniforme que possa ser indistintamente aplicado a todas as situações fáticas, e que seja capaz de assegurar, no plano prático, maior previsibilidade e uniformidade das decisões judiciais. Para tanto, faz-se uma breve análise das modernas tendências da responsabilidade civil, especialmente da expansão dos danos indenizáveis, com o intuito de demonstrar que o reconhecimento do dano social (ou qualquer outra denominação que se atribua ao mesmo fenômeno) é decorrência do atual estágio evolutivo de uma sociedade em que o aumento do potencial lesivo e o abandono do paradigma liberal individual-patrimonialista conduziu à coletivização dos direitos, cuja violação passou a ser objeto de reparação. Além disso, busca-se compreender como os temas do dano social e do dano moral coletivo, que muitas vezes são tratados como sinônimos pela jurisprudência, têm sido tratados pela doutrina, sem deixar de analisar, ainda, os principais aspectos dos instrumentos coletivos de reparação civil, com destaque para os princípios e para as modernas tendências apontadas no âmbito das ações coletivas. Sob o ponto de vista processual, parte-se da premissa de que a motivação se constitui instrumento para a efetividade de direito, pois assegura o controle da racionalidade e da legitimação das decisões judiciais. Desse modo, considerando que é na fundamentação que o julgador, a partir do substrato fático, realizará o enquadramento jurídico da questão, passa-se à análise da motivação das decisões judiciais dos Tribunais de Justiça e Tribunais Regionais do Trabalho selecionados, chegando-se à conclusão de que, não obstante, ontologicamente, o dano social e o dano moral coletivo perante a jurisprudência possuam os mesmos elementos caracterizadores, a fragilidade dos argumentos, aliada à ausência de aprofundamento teórico nas decisões judiciais, que se utilizam, na maior parte das vezes, dos mesmos referenciais teóricos e de termos abertos e indeterminados para designar o instituto, ao qual se sugere a denominação de \"dano extrapatrimonial coletivo\", inviabilizam a extração de critérios objetivos para a seleção dos danos merecedores de tutela, exigindo um aprimoramento teórico das fundamentações neste particular. / The present study, based on the observation that there is still a great amount of uncertainty of what constitutes the social damage, aims to investigate the possibility of extracting criteria from jurisprudence that allow the construction of a uniform concept that can be applied indistinctly to all factual situations, and to ensure, on a practical level, greater predictability and uniformity of judicial decisions. In order to do so, a brief analysis of the modern tendencies of civil liability, especially of the expansion of the indemnifiable damages, with the intention of demonstrating that the recognition of the social damage (or any denomination that is attributed to the same phenomenon) is due to the stage evolution of a society in which the increase of the harmful potential and the abandonment of the liberal individual-patrimonialist paradigm led to the collectivization of rights, whose violation became subject to redress. In addition, it seeks to understand how the themes of social damage and collective moral damage, which are often treated as synonyms by jurisprudence, have been treated by the doctrine, while still analyzing the main aspects of collective reparation instruments, highlighting the principles and the modern trends pointed out in the scope of collective actions. From the procedural point of view, it is based on the premise that motivation constitutes an instrument for the effectiveness of law, since it ensures the control of the rationality and legitimacy of judicial decisions. Thus, considering that it is in the grounds that the judge, based on the factual substrate, will carry out the legal framework of the issue, we proceed to analyze the motivation of the judicial decisions of the Courts of Justice and Selected Regional Labor Courts, coming to however, ontologically the social damage and collective moral damage to the jurisprudence have the same characterizing elements, the fragility of the arguments, allied to the lack of theoretical deepening in the judicial decisions, that are used, in most cases, the same theoretical references and open and indeterminate terms to designate the institute, for which is suggested the denomination of \"collective off-balance damage\", make it impossible to extract objective criteria for the selection of damages worthy of guardianship, requiring a theoretical improvement of the grounds in this particular.

Cryopreservation is a promising approach to long-term biopreservation of living cells, tissues and organs. The use of cryoprotective agents (CPAs) in combination with extremely low temperatures is mandatory for optimum biopreservation. CPAs (e.g., glycerol, trehalose, dimethyl sulphoxide (DMSO)), however, are relatively cytotoxic and compromise biopreserved cell quality. This is usually resultant in oxidative damage, diminishing cell functionality and survival rate. The growing market of cell therapy medicinal products (CTMPs) demands effective cryopreservation with greater safety, of which the currently available CPAs are unable to provide. The present study was aimed at developing cryomedia formulation to enhance the cryopreservation of nucleated and anucleated mammalian cells. Here, eleven compounds of a polyol nature were selected and examined for their cryoprotective properties. These compounds are derived from plants and honey, thereby ensuring their safety for human consumption. The selection was based on their molecular structure and chemical properties. Here, the presented study is divided into three main phases: 1) Screening the compounds panel for cryo-additive effects on cells during and post-cryopreservation and optimising the dose response and time course for trehalose and glycerol with and without the novel compounds; 2) Assessing the influence of biophysical criteria on biospecimen cryopreservation (e.g., biosampling procedure, cell age, donor age); 3) Establishing the mechanisms of action underpinning the modulatory effect of novel CPAs on biological pathways during cryopreservation. For the stated purposes, red blood cells (RBCs) obtained from sheep and humans were used to screen the compounds for novel cryo-additive agents. Cryosurvival rate was employed as an indication of the compounds' cryoprotective performance. Cellular biochemical profiles, including lipid and protein oxidative damage as well as key redox enzymatic activities (e.g., lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), glutathione reductase (GR)) were measured. The study revealed that nigerose (Nig) and salidroside (Sal) were significantly effective in protecting cells during the freeze-thaw cycle and recovery phases. Both compounds promoted the activity of GR and reduced oxidative stress mirrored by diminished LDH activity. This was also reflected in the protein and lipid oxidation levels, which was limited to a comparable level with the cells' prior freezing. Further studies on human leukaemia (HL-60) were carried out to elucidate the molecular and biological pathways associated with cryodamage and the modulatory effects of adding novel CPAs. The proteome profile and the corresponding biological functions were evaluated and iii showed that Nig and Sal protected cells against cryodamage. The additive compounds (Nig and Sal) demonstrated a unique and overlapping modulation effect pattern. Nig was found to highly influence proteins engaged with metabolic and energetic pathways, whereas Sal greatly affected nuclear and DNA-binding proteins. The current study concluded that novel CPAs have high potency in protecting cells and each compound has a unique effect on the cellular proteome. These features can be applied to designing cryomedia formulae with higher protective efficiency for targeted applications in cell based therapy and biopharmaceutical industries.

No mundo moderno a energia elétrica tem um papel fundamental; ela é a base do progresso e desenvolvimento mundial. O seu surgimento propiciou a melhora no saneamento, na saúde, no abastecimento de água e alimentos, na qualidade de vida e também fez surgir a sociedade capitalista e de consumo. A utilização do petróleo como fonte geradora de energia foi o impulso da revolução industrial e através dele foram desenvolvidos motores, geradores e máquinas que contribuíram para o progresso. Com isto veio também a emissão de gases (CO2, CO, SOX e NOX) e outras substâncias que agravaram o efeito estufa, o buraco na camada de ozônio e a chuva ácida alterando o equilíbrio do planeta. O desenvolvimento de outras formas de geração de energia provocou mudanças nos locais onde estas foram instaladas, impactando o meio ambiente. Este trabalho apresenta uma avaliação ambiental sobre as diferentes formas de geração de energia elétrica e os impactos ambientais pertinentes a cada uma delas. Inclui cinco formas de geração de energia elétrica: termelétrica, nuclear, hidrelétrica, eólica e solar. No tópico energia termelétrica apresenta-se a geologia do petróleo, a sua extração e beneficiamento. Mostra também a descoberta e o desenvolvimento da indústria petrolífera no mundo e no Brasil. Detalha o funcionamento de três tipos de centrais termelétricas: a carvão, a gás e a óleo. São relacionados os impactos ambientais comuns a elas e os característicos de cada tipo de usina. Assim como o decorrente da desativação de cada uma delas. É apresentado um pequeno histórico da energia nuclear, seu desenvolvimento no Brasil e no mundo, bem como o funcionamento de uma usina e os impactos causados durante a sua operação e seu descomissionamento. A história, o funcionamento e o avanço da energia hidrelétrica no Brasil, as grandes usinas e a sua relação com o meio ambiente, são mostrados juntamente com os impactos ambientais na sua implantação, operação e desativação. A energia eólica é mostrada desde a sua implantação e funcionamento até os impactos ambientais decorrentes do processo de geração de energia elétrica e da sua desativação. No caso da energia solar é apresentado o funcionamento dos painéis solares, a implantação da central e os impactos ambientais relacionados a utilização desta. Os impactos originados na sua desativação também são apresentados. Destacados os impactos ambientais para cada forma de geração de energia elétrica, estes são correlacionados e comparados pela área de implantação da usina, a capacidade de geração, a eficiência, a potência e o custo do kW. Não existe uma forma totalmente limpa de geração de energia elétrica. Existem, sim, formas que não emitem os gases responsáveis pelo efeito estufa. Assim, todas as formas de geração de energia são importantes para um país, ou seja, quanto mais diversificada for a matriz energética, melhor. / Electric energy has an important function in the modern world; it is fundamental for progress and development. The electricity discovery allowed improvements in several areas: health, water and food supply, quality of life and sanitary conditions, and contributed also to the establishment of the capitalist and consumption society. The use of oil as an energy generation source was the impulse for the industrial revolution and machines, motors and generators were developed contributing to the progress. This also brought the pollutant gases emission (CO2, CO, SOX and NOX) and other substances that had contributed to the greenhouse effect, the ozone hole and the acid rain, modifying the balance of the planet. The development and implementation of other forms of energy generation caused local changes, where they were installed, giving rise to environmental impacts. This work presents an evaluation about different forms of electrical energy generation and the environmental impacts relative to each one of them. Five forms of electric energy generation were considered: thermoelectric, nuclear, hydroelectric, wind and solar energy. The implementation and the development of the petroleum industry in the world and in Brazil are presented. The geology of the oil, its extraction and quality improvement, besides details of the functioning of three types of thermoelectric power plants - coal, gas and oil - are also discussed. The specific as well as the environmental impacts they have in common are highlighted. The impacts originated from the deactivation of each one of them are also pointed out. The discovery and the development of nuclear energy in Brazil and in the world as well as the functioning of a nuclear power plant, the impacts generated by its operation and decommissioning are presented. The history, functioning and development of hydroelectric energy generation in Brazil, characterized by the great plants, are related to environmental aspects The environmental impacts due to its implantation, operation and deactivation are also evinced. The wind power plant implantation and functioning and the environmental impacts involved in the process of electric energy generation and its deactivation are analyzed. The functioning of the solar panels, the implantation of the power plant and the environmental impacts related to the use of solar energy are discussed. The impacts resulting from the deactivation are also presented. Once outlined the environmental impacts from each form of electric energy generation, they were correlated and compared considering the area of the power plant implantation, the generation capacity, the efficiency, the power and the cost per kW. There is no totally clean form of electric energy generation. There is, however, generation without emission of gases responsible for the green house effect. Therefore, all forms of energy generation are important for a country; in other words, the best situation is the diversity of the energy matrix.

L'environnement est un concept relativement nouveau considéré comme une problématique importante. Il est devenu un facteur incontournable pour les entreprises qui se doivent de prendre en compte les risques et impacts de leurs activités. Elles sont contraintes de s'adapter à des règles toujours plus restrictives et exigeantes. Aujourd'hui, les enjeux environnementaux préoccupent au plan international comme au plan national. Dans une démarche globale de gestion du risque environnemental, l'assureur a un rôle important. La technique assurantielle est un outil essentiel dans la prévention et la réparation des atteintes à l'environnement. C'est donc par une étude approfondie que sera mis en évidence dans quelle mesure l'assurance appréhende le risque environnemental nait d'une activité industrielle. / Environment is a fairly new concept considered as a top issue. It has become a key factor for companies which have to take into account risks and impacts related to their activities. They have to adapt themselves to more and more restrictive and demanding rules. Today, environmental stakes concern at international level but also at national one too. In a overall approach of the environmental risk management, insurance companies play a key role. The technical practice in the insurance world is a critical tool to raise awareness and to fix environmental damages. It is only by doing a very deep study that we will be able to find outhow insurance companies deal with environmental risks related to manufacturing activities.

<p>The purpose of the thesis is to illustrate how payments of damages between companies are treated from a taxation point of view, and to analyse, in a tax law perspective, the consequences that follow the transactions. Furthermore, a comparison is made between damages and transactions similar to damages, such as amicable settlements and fines between companies, to ascertain whether they are treated similar. Finally, there is an analysis of the consequences of taxation of insurances, both premiums and compensations, followed by a comparison with the consequences of taxation of damages.</p>

<p>The thesis consists in two parts. The purpose of the first part is to analyse how the court may interpret rules, principles and legal cases to decide whether a reconstructor bears liability towards the debtor and the creditors. In the second part it is discussed and argued for how the reconstructor´s damage liability should be drawn up and applied so that it according to economic theories should be as efficient as possible. In the thesis it is shown that it is not a non-contractual liability or a liability based on authority mission. The reconstructor´s liability is instead based on a commission concerning an intellectual service. The court is the mandator of the commission, but the debtor must be regarded as the principal. The reconstructor is liable towards the debtors on contractual grounds, the relationship can be considered as equivalent to contract. The reconstrucotr´s liablity does not fall under the limitation rules in HB 18:9 but falls under the limitation rules in Preskriptionslagen. In the second part, dealing with theories of Law and Economics, it is shown that a negligence rule is the most efficient. The reconstructor´s liability, according to the analysis of Swedish law, would thereby be efficient. A problem lies however in the fact that the parties does not know for sure which liability rule that is in force. This is inefficient while it can lead to that the parties observes a too low activity level, observes a too low level of care or take too many, costly, safety measures. This problem can best be solved through a non-mandatory law which allows the parties to rely entirely on the law or to make a contract where the gaps are being covered by the law.</p>