Chiplets have become an increasingly popular technology for extending Moore's Law and improving the reliability of integrated circuits. They do this by placing several small, interacting chips on an interposer rather than the traditional, single chip used for a device. Like any other type of integrated circuit, chiplets are in need of a physical layer of security to defend against hardware Trojans, counterfeiting, probing, and other methods of tampering and physical attacks. Power distribution networks are ubiquitous across chiplet and monolithic ICs, and are essential to the function of the device. Thus, we propose a method of fingerprinting transient signals within the PDN to identify individual chiplet systems and physical-layer threats against these devices. In this work, we describe a Python-wrapped HSPICE model we have built to automate testing of our proposed PDN fingerprinting methods. We also document the methods of analysis used- wavelet transforms and time-domain measurements- to identify unique characteristics in the voltage response signals to transient stimuli. We provide the true positive and false positive rates of these methods for a simulated lineup of chips across varying operating conditions to determine uniqueness and reliability of our techniques. Our simulations show that, if characterized at varying supply voltage and temperature conditions in the factory, and the sensors used for identification meet the sample rates and voltage resolutions used in our tests, our protocol provides sufficient uniqueness and reliability to be enrolled. We recommend that experimentation be done to evaluate our methods in hardware and implement sensing techniques to meet the requirements shown in this work.

[pt] No sistema elétrico de potência podem ocorrer falhas que resultarão na interrupção do fornecimento de energia para os consumidores conectados a esses sistemas. Uma concessionária de energia elétrica deve prestar aos seus clientes um serviço que seja confiável e de boa qualidade. Por isso, o planejamento seguro e eficiente se faz necessário para obter a confiabilidade do sistema elétrico de acordo com as exigências estabelecidas pela agência reguladora do setor, onde caso não sejam observadas pela distribuidora de energia são cabíveis de punições monetárias. O desempenho de um sistema pode ser observado com base no histórico de interrupções, por meio dos indicadores de continuidade. A baixa flexibilidade operativa de subestações aliada à configuração das redes reduz a confiabilidade dos sistemas, causando prejuízos às empresas e aos consumidores por estarem vulneráveis e sofrerem interrupções de energia. O presente estudo é essencial, pois visa identificar métodos e análises apuradas que indiquem os pontos prioritários para manutenções nas redes elétricas. Dessa forma, a dissertação apresenta uma metodologia que identifica os equipamentos e trechos associados aos pontos críticos e de maior impacto em uma rede de distribuição. A partir daí é possível direcionar os serviços de manutenção dos circuitos para os trechos de maior impacto nos indicadores de continuidade de uma determinada região e otimizar o orçamento correspondente. A ferramenta usada para analisar os indicadores é uma matriz de risco, onde os eixos representam probabilidade de ocorrência (reincidência) e impacto corporativo (índice de continuidade) de modo a capturar mais precisamente os pontos para atuações de manutenção prioritária. Desenhada a estrutura da matriz, os fatores de risco identificados são avaliados qualitativamente, em termos de probabilidade e impacto, e posicionado na matriz, indicando seu estado: eminente, crítico, alto, médio e baixo. São analisados dois sistemas de distribuição reais da classe de 13,8 kV, com o objetivo de demonstrar a capacidade da metodologia de encontrar as soluções condizentes do ponto de vista técnico e econômico. Os resultados apontam uma redução dos indicadores de continuidade, colaborando assim na eficaz gestão do sistema elétrico e na mitigação dos prejuízos econômicos associados às interrupções de energia. / [en] Faults can occur in the electrical power system which will result in interruption of the power supply to consumers connected to these systems. An electric power utility should provide its customers with a service that is reliable and of good quality. Therefore, safe and efficient planning is necessary to obtain the reliability of the electrical system according to the requirements established by the regulatory agency of the sector. In case they are not observed by the electrical energy distributor, monetary penalties are possibly applied. The performance of a system can be observed based on the history of interruptions, through the continuity indicators. The low operational flexibility of substations, coupled with the network configurations, reduces the reliability of the systems causing monetary damage to companies and consumers, due to their vulnerability to interruptions of energy. The present study is essential because it aims to identify methods and analysis that detect the priority points for maintenance in the electric networks. In this way, the dissertation presents a methodology that identifies the equipment and sections associated to the critical points of greater impact in a distribution network. Thus, it is possible to direct the maintenance services of the circuits to the segments of greater impact in the indices of continuity of a certain region and to optimize the corresponding budget. The basic tool used to analyze the indices is a risk matrix, where the axes represent the probability of occurrence (recurrence) and company impact (continuity indices), in order to capture more precisely the points for priority maintenance actions. When the matrix structure is established, the identified risk factors are qualitatively assessed in terms of probability and impact, and positioned in the matrix, indicating their state: eminent, critical, high, medium, and low. Two real distribution systems of the 13.8 kV class are analyzed to demonstrate the ability of the proposed methodology to find the appropriate solutions from a technical and economic point of view. The results point to a reduction in continuity indicators, thus contributing to the effective management of the power electric system and mitigating the economic losses associated with power outages.

Assessing the impact of domestic low-carbon technologies on the electricity distribution network requires a detailed insight into the operation of networks and the power demands of consumers. When used on a wide-scale, low-carbon technologies, including domestic scale micro-generation, heat pumps, electric vehicles and flexible demand, will change the nature of domestic electricity use. In providing a basis for the quantification of the impact upon distribution networks, this thesis details the construction and use of a high-resolution integrated model that simulates both existing domestic electricity use and low voltage distribution networks. Electricity demand is modelled at the level of individual household appliances and is based upon surveyed occupant time-use data. This approach results in a simulation that exhibits realistic time-variant demand characteristics, in both individual dwellings, as well as, groups of dwellings together. Validation is performed against real domestic electricity use data, measured for this purpose, from dwellings in Loughborough in the East Midlands, UK. The low voltage distribution network is modelled using real network data, and the output of its simulation is validated against measured network voltages and power demands. The integrated model provides a highly detailed insight into the operation of networks at a one-minute resolution. This integrated model is the main output of this research, alongside published articles and a freely downloadable software implementation of the demand model.

L’intégration des producteurs décentralisés (DG) dans un réseau de distribution peut modifier le profil de tension et influencer le réglage de tension conventionnel. Pour le bon fonctionnement du réseau, le raccordement des DG ainsi que les charges grosses sont limités par le dimensionnement du réseau. Les travaux de cette thèse ont pour but de proposer une approche du réglage de tension dans un réseau de distribution avec producteur, en appuyant sur la flexibilité de la demande. Les moyens de réglage de tension seront constitués du régleur en charge (OLTC), la régulation de DG ainsi que la demande flexible. Une optimisation centralisée de type MINLP est proposée pour coordonner ces moyens de réglage. Il est montré que si les moyens de l’OLTC et de la puissance réactive ne suffissent pas de lever la contrainte de tension, il faut réduire la puissance active de producteur. Pour le gain de producteur, la demande flexible peut être considérée comme une source active. La modulation de « demand response » (DR) utilisant les charges thermiques est alors proposée au réglage de tension. L’effet de rebond est pris en compte pour les charges thermiques afin de ne pas affecter le profil de tension après l’action de DR. Ces travaux permettent d’envisager un réglage de tension plus active dans le réseau intelligent et augmenter la flexibilité du réseau. / Growth of distributed generations (DG) in actual distribution networks will bring voltage issues that cannot be fixed by conventional voltage control means. For the sake of network safety, the size of DG and load in a distribution network is limited by the network parameters. The research described in this thesis aims to propose a voltage control strategy on distribution networks using the flexibility of demand. The voltage control means will consist of the on load tap changer (OLTC), the regulation of DG, and flexible demand. A centralized optimization of MINLP type is proposed to coordinate these voltage control means. It shows if it is not able to remove the voltage constraint with OLTC and reactive power regulation, then it must reduce the active power of DG. In order not to reduce active power of DG, the flexible demand is considered as an active source to take part in voltage control. The demand response (DR) modulation using thermal loads is thus proposed for voltage control. For the thermal load, the cold load pick-up (CLPU) effect must be taken into account in order not to affect the voltage profile after DR action. This work allows us to consider a voltage control strategy more active in smart distribution network and improve the flexibility of network.

La gestion prévisionnelle des réseaux de distribution imposée par les codes de réseaux européens nécessite une connaissance approfondie de leur comportement et implique de prendre en compte la volatilité des énergies renouvelables et les capacités de prévision à l’horizon J-1 de la consommation et de la production. En effet, les valeurs déterministes les plus probables des prévisions ne sont plus suffisantes pour pouvoir prédire et gérer à l’avance un réseau. Une modélisation et une optimisation stochastiques permettent un choix, au plus juste, de paramètres de contrôle.La thèse se concentre la prise en compte, dans la modélisation et l’optimisation, des incertitudes des réseaux de distribution. Une modélisation stochastique de réseau est proposée, elle intègre les incertitudes liées au régleur en charge et aux prévisions de consommation et de production. Les contrôleurs des générateurs, le régleur en charge et les gradins de condensateurs permettent de limiter les fluctuations des tensions des nœuds et de la puissance réactive à l’interface et de respecter les exigences contractuelles. Industriellement, les contrôleurs des générateurs sont caractérisés par des lois de commande linéaires ou linéaires par morceaux. En effectuant des hypothèses sur la nature stochastique des données, on peut montrer que les tensions aux nœuds sont des variables gaussiennes ou des sommes de variables gaussiennes par morceaux. Une optimisation stochastique basée sur ces modèles permet de choisir les paramètres des contrôleurs qui minimisent les risques de surtension et des efforts de générateurs, sans avoir à mettre en œuvre des méthodes coûteuses en temps de calcul de type Monte Carlo / The voltage profiles inside the network and power flows at the transport-distribution interface are modified under the massive insertion of renewable sources in distribution grids. The system’s uncertainties cannot be handled by local controllers which parameters are tuned at the actuator installation stage. A solution, widely accepted in the literature, consists of achieving a centralized optimization of the actuators references (distributed generators reactive powers, reference voltage of the On Load Tap Changer, capacitor banks reactive power). Within this framework, a supervisor computes all references at the same time and delivers the references to each actuators, which requires an efficient and reliable communication system.The main contribution of the thesis is to design an alternative approach which keeps the local control structures which settings will be updated on an hourly basis. The optimization relies on a stochastic representation of the grid that accounts for the On Load Tap Changer uncertainties and day ahead forecasts of the productions and consumptions. It is shown that every variable of the system can be represented by Gaussian or sum of truncated Gaussian variables. A stochastic optimization allows to select the controllers settings that minimize overvoltages and control efforts, without using time-consuming algorithms such as Monte-Carlo methods. This work will demonstrate that an appropriate management of uncertainties spares unnecessary and costly oversizing

Este trabalho apresenta um modelo computacional para otimização energética de sistemas de abastecimento em tempo real. Tal modelo é composto por três módulos principais: (1) um módulo de simulação hidráulica que descreve o comportamento do sistema - EPANET; (2) um módulo de previsão de demandas que realiza a previsão das demandas futuras aplicável à utilização no tempo real (curto prazo), desenvolvido por Odan (2008); e, por fim, (3) um módulo otimizador estruturado em linguagem C++ que implementa a biblioteca de algoritmos genéticos do MIT - Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Matthew Wall, a GAlib, que permite determinar as rotinas operacionais (acionamento de válvulas e bombas) de forma à minimizar o custo de energia elétrica no sistema. O processo de otimização é divido em duas rotinas, nível estratégico e tempo real. Na otimização em nível estratégico, a partir das curvas típicas de demanda para cada nó de demanda do macro-sistema considerado, determina-se o conjunto de controles que minimizam os custos de energia elétrica, respeitando as restrições hidráulicas do sistema. Para cada conjunto de controles otimizados têm-se os níveis que os reservatórios irão atingir ao final de cada hora durante o horizonte de planejamento considerado, denominados níveis metas. Tais níveis servem de guia para a segunda etapa de otimização. A operação em tempo real se inicia com o recebimento dos dados sobre as condições atuais do sistema: níveis dos reservatórios e demandas da última hora. A partir das demandas informadas, o módulo de previsão de demandas gera todas as demandas para o horizonte de planejamento. Alimenta-se então o otimizador em tempo real com os níveis atuais dos reservatórios, os níveis metas e a previsão de demandas, obtêm-se o conjunto de regras operacionais ótimas para o horizonte de planejamento, sendo que são implementadas apenas as regras para a hora atual. E repete-se todo o processo a cada hora. Este modelo foi aplicado a um sistema de abastecimento de água. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram a eficiência do modelo em achar soluções factíveis de serem implementadas e com redução dos custos com energia elétrica. / This work presents a computational model for real-time optimization of water-distribution networks operation. An integrated software tool has been developed which is composed of three main modules: (i) a hydraulic simulator that performs the extended period simulation of the system (EPANET); (ii) a short-term demand-forecasting model, based on the moving Fourier series; and (iii) an optimization module, using genetic algorithm, to minimize pumping costs. The optimization process is divided in two routines, the off-line optimization and the on-line optimization. The aim of the first routine is to find the ideal operation levels for the reservoirs which are used as guidance for the on-line optimization. The schedules to be implemented in the network are determined, however, by an on-line optimization which runs a new optimization processes at each SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) update. In the off-line optimization, near-optimal pump and valve settings for a selected operating horizon are found on the basis of the typical 24-hour water demand cycle in which each reservoir must also start and end with the same water level. The levels of the reservoirs at the end of each hour in this optimization process, called ideal levels, are considered in the on-line optimization as a constraint that represents a penalty added to the objective function whenever a reservoir level is below the ideal level at the end of each hourly operation. The on-line optimization starts updating the state of the network transmitted from the SCADA system and the demand forecast for the next 24-hour period. Near-optimal pump and valve settings for a selected operating horizon are then determined but only the control settings for the next hourly time step are used to implement the operation. At the next SCADA update (next-time step), the whole process is repeated on a continuous basis and a new operating strategy is computed. In this way, the control process moves forward in time, correcting any discrepancies as it progresses. This integrated software tool has been applied to a small example network. The results obtained from this application have shown that the proposed model offers a practical tool for finding feasible operation strategies for a water pipeline system, obtaining reductions in pumping energy costs.

L’intégration des producteurs décentralisés (DG) dans un réseau de distribution peut modifier le profil de tension et influencer le réglage de tension conventionnel. Pour le bon fonctionnement du réseau, le raccordement des DG ainsi que les charges grosses sont limités par le dimensionnement du réseau. Les travaux de cette thèse ont pour but de proposer une approche du réglage de tension dans un réseau de distribution avec producteur, en appuyant sur la flexibilité de la demande. Les moyens de réglage de tension seront constitués du régleur en charge (OLTC), la régulation de DG ainsi que la demande flexible. Une optimisation centralisée de type MINLP est proposée pour coordonner ces moyens de réglage. Il est montré que si les moyens de l’OLTC et de la puissance réactive ne suffissent pas de lever la contrainte de tension, il faut réduire la puissance active de producteur. Pour le gain de producteur, la demande flexible peut être considérée comme une source active. La modulation de « demand response » (DR) utilisant les charges thermiques est alors proposée au réglage de tension. L’effet de rebond est pris en compte pour les charges thermiques afin de ne pas affecter le profil de tension après l’action de DR. Ces travaux permettent d’envisager un réglage de tension plus active dans le réseau intelligent et augmenter la flexibilité du réseau. / Growth of distributed generations (DG) in actual distribution networks will bring voltage issues that cannot be fixed by conventional voltage control means. For the sake of network safety, the size of DG and load in a distribution network is limited by the network parameters. The research described in this thesis aims to propose a voltage control strategy on distribution networks using the flexibility of demand. The voltage control means will consist of the on load tap changer (OLTC), the regulation of DG, and flexible demand. A centralized optimization of MINLP type is proposed to coordinate these voltage control means. It shows if it is not able to remove the voltage constraint with OLTC and reactive power regulation, then it must reduce the active power of DG. In order not to reduce active power of DG, the flexible demand is considered as an active source to take part in voltage control. The demand response (DR) modulation using thermal loads is thus proposed for voltage control. For the thermal load, the cold load pick-up (CLPU) effect must be taken into account in order not to affect the voltage profile after DR action. This work allows us to consider a voltage control strategy more active in smart distribution network and improve the flexibility of network.

O objetivo deste estudo foi a elaboração e testes simulados, com dados elétricos reais, de metodologia para a operação de geração distribuída (GD) fotovoltaica, em baixa tensão e com exportação de excedentes, em sistemas de distribuição reticulado. A metodologia superou as limitações impostas pelos equipamentos de proteção chamados Protetores de Rede, inerentes à topologia de distribuição do tipo reticulado. Tais equipamentos inviabilizam a geração distribuída, que exporta excedentes para a rede externa por desconectarem os transformadores de média para baixa tensão, causando o ilhamento da GD, sempre que existir um fluxo de potência reverso, ou seja, no sentido do cliente para a concessionária. O objetivo foi alcançado por meio da criação de um simulador de subestação de reticulado exclusivo (Spot) de três transformadores nos qual os comportamentos dos protetores de rede eram testados com dados de fluxo de potência reais aquisitados em subestações de reticulado em Brasília (concessionária CEB) e em subestação do Instituto de Energia e Ambiente (IEE), da Universidade de São Paulo, onde existe uma instalação geradora fotovoltaica de 12kWp. Novos comportamentos dos protetores de rede foram simulados para compatibilizar tal fluxo reverso de potência e parâmetros críticos foram levantados. Nas simulações, encontraram-se caminhos viáveis de promover estas conexões com segurança e simplicidade. Estes novos comportamentos podem ser implementados no firmware dos relés de protetores de redes microprocessados. / The aim of this study was to develop and test a methodology for operation of photovoltaic distributed generation (DG) on secondary side of the Spot and Grid Network types of electricity distribution systems, allowing for the export of excess energy. This methodology did overcome the limitations imposed by the protective equipment known as Network Protector (NP), a standard equipment on secondary network distribution topology. Such equipments make exporting energy from distributed generation systems to the grid unfeasible because of the operational aspects of Network Protectors. This devices will disconnect the transformers whenever there is a reverse power flow, i.e. towards the utility, causing the islanding of the DG. The objective was achieved through the conception of a simulator for a Spot Network substation with three transformers where the behaviors of network protectors could be tested. Those simulations were performed with actual power flow data from real network substations in Brasilia city (CEB utility area) and the substation at the Institute for Energy and Environment (IEE) at the University of Sao Paulo, where a photovoltaic generating facility of 12kWp exists. New behaviors were simulated in order to make the NPs to manage the expected reverse power flow successfully. The most important parameters for the model were explained. Viable ways to connect exporting photovoltaic DG to secondary networks safely and simply have been found by means of these simulations. These new behaviors could be embedded in the firmware of the NP´s microprocessor based relays.

Este trabalho apresenta a metodologia, o desenvolvimento e testes de um sistema de automação independente, baseado em Redes Neurais Artificiais, para redução de perdas técnicas em redes de distribuição subterrâneas reticuladas por meio do controle ótimo dos bancos de capacitores presentes na rede. A metodologia proposta contempla funcionalidades típicas de Redes Inteligentes, incluindo soluções práticas para o posicionamento de sensores de corrente em redes subterrâneas, coleta de medições de campo e transmissão para o Centro de Operação da Distribuição e controle em tempo real dos equipamentos de campo (bancos de capacitores). Portanto este trabalho consiste na implementação da solução através de baixo custo de investimento na mitigação do controle do fator de potência nos pontos de entrega ao consumidor, sendo que com isto ocorrem melhorias nos indicadores de qualidade e confiabilidade atendendo aos requisitos regulamentares e contratuais de fornecimento das distribuidoras. Para validação da metodologia proposta, foram utilizados os dados da concessionária de energia AES Eletropaulo sobre a Rede de Distribuição Subterrânea Reticulada do centro da cidade de São Paulo. As etapas da metodologia proposta e os principais aspectos do desenvolvimento do sistema são também descritos, bem como os testes realizados para comprovação dos resultados e validação do sistema. / This work presents the methodology, development and testing of an independent automation system, based on Artificial Neural Networks, to reduce technical losses in reticulated underground distribution networks by means of the optimal control of the capacitor banks present in the network. The proposed methodology includes typical functionalities of Intelligent Networks, including practical solutions for the positioning of current sensors in underground networks, collection of field measurements and transmission to the Distribution Operation Center and real-time control of field equipment (capacitors banks). Therefore, this work consists in the implementation of the solution through a low cost of investment in the mitigation of the control of the power factor in the points of delivery to the consumer, and with this there are improvements in the indicators of quality and reliability taking into account the regulatory and contractual requirements of supply of the distributors. The energy concessionaire AES Eletropaulo had great participation in this research project, providing the necessary data of the Reticulated Underground Distribution Network of the city center of São Paulo. The steps of the proposed methodology and the main aspects of system development are also described, as well as the tests performed to prove the results and validate the system.

Os sistemas elétricos de distribuição estão evoluindo rapidamente devido à penetração de geração distribuída e ao crescimento na utilização de avançadas estruturas de medição e sistemas de gerenciamento de distribuição de energia elétrica. Esta evolução traz consigo novos desafios devido à intermitência da geração, a qual pode gerar impactos indesejáveis nos sistemas de distribuição, como a interação de diferentes harmônicos. As Unidades de Medição Fasorial (PMUs) tem potencial para desempenhar um importante papel no monitoramento de sistemas elétricos de distribuição por meio dos fasores com medidas temporalmente sincronizadas de tensão e corrente em vários locais do sistema, oferecendo assim inúmeras possibilidades para estimar o estado de uma rede de distribuição. Porém, para serem utilizadas amplamente em redes de distribuição, é necessário que as PMUs apresentem um menor custo e possuam algumas características funcionais exclusivas para o uso nestas redes. Assim, o objetivo desta tese consiste no desenvolvimento de uma unidade de medição fasorial de baixo custo com características originais para o uso no nível de distribuição de energia elétrica, tais como medição fasorial nas redes de média e baixa tensão utilizando a modelagem dos transformadores e a identificação e estimação dos parâmetros da causa de ocorrência de distúrbios elétricos. Para isso, foram construídos dois protótipos da unidade de medição fasorial proposta neste trabalho, visando verificar a sincronização na medição de fasores de tensão e corrente. Os protótipos também foram acoplados à rede com diferentes combinações de impedância e alimentaram variadas cargas, onde foi possível através das técnicas implementadas nos equipamentos identificar e estimar os parâmetros elétricos da origem (rede ou carga) da ocorrência de variações na tensão e potência fornecidas pela rede distribuição. / Power distribution systems are evolving at a high pace largely due to the proliferation of distributed energy resources and the growing utilization of advanced metering infrastructures and distribution management system. This evolution is also leading to new challenges due large penetration of intermittent distributed generation, which can lead to noticeable impacts on distribution feeders. Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs) have the potential to play an essential role in power distribution system monitoring. For providing synchronized measurements of voltage and current phasors at various system locations, PMUs offer numerous possibilities for ascertaining information relating to the state of the power distribution system. However, to be used widely in power distribution systems, its necessary that PMUs get a low cost and have some exclusive features for these systems. Thus, the main objective of this thesis have consisted of developing a low cost Phasor Measurement Unit with original features proposed for distribution level, such as compatibility with low and medium voltage power networks using transformer modeling and also the identification and parameter estimation of the cause of electrical disturbances. So, they were built two prototypes of the Phasor Measurement Unit, in order to verify the synchronization in the measurement of voltage and current phasors. The prototypes were also coupled to the network with different combinations of impedance and they fed varying loads, where it was possible through the techniques implemented in the equipment identify and estimate electrical parameters of the cause (network or load) of variations in voltage and power supplied by the network distribution.