Characterized by the severe progressive wastage of skeletal muscle, Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is a crippling X-linked recessive disease that is caused by the absence of the protein dystrophin. This thesis aimed to critically evaluate the potential of different therapeutic options to combat this disease. Utrophin is a paralogue of dystrophin. The Fiona mouse is an mdx (dystrophin-deficient) transgenic mouse that overexpresses the full-length utrophin protein in skeletal muscle, and various studies have shown that it does not display a dystrophic phenotype. However, these studies have only been performed on sedentary mice. In this work it is demonstrated that utrophin’s protective effect is partially diminished after a sustained period of exercise-induced stress, highlighting for the first time a functional difference between dystrophin and utrophin. This thesis also presents results of two mdx mouse drug trials testing the ameliorative effects of the administration of the drugs GW501516 and C1100, which show that treatment with both drugs results in partial amelioration of the dystrophic phenotype. GW501516 administration results in a beneficial fast-to-slow fibre type switch and an in vivo increase in utrophin protein levels. We have also shown that C1100 treatment results in a significant increase in utrophin A promoter activity in vitro, and the mechanism of action of this drug on this promoter has been deciphered. The global dysregulation of microRNAs in skeletal muscle of mdx and dko (dystrophin- and utrophin-deficient) mice was evaluated by microarray analysis to identify microRNAs involved in the dystrophic pathological cascades. The results of detailed expression analyses of miR-31, miR-206 and miR-503 are presented, and two therapeutically-relevant predicted targets of miR-503 were validated. Overall, this thesis evaluates the potential of different and possibly complementary therapeutic options to combat DMD.

La dystrophie musculaire de Duchenne (DMD) est la maladie neuromusculaire la plus fréquente de l'enfant. Son évolution progressive inexorable conduit habituellement au décès dans la troisième décade. La DMD constitue cependant une affection hétérogène pour la sévérité de l'atteinte musculaire, cognitive et cardiaque, et cette hétérogénéité n'est pas totalement expliquée par la localisation des mutations dans le gène de la dystrophine. Ma thèse comporte trois volets: (1) une analyse clinique multivariée d'une cohorte de DMD suivie à long terme qui nous a permis de définir 4 phénotypes distincts de DMD; (2) une étude de corrélation clinico-pathologique qui a identifié la fibrose endomysiale précoce comme seul facteur histologique prédictif de sévérité motrice; (3) la mise au point d'un modèle murin original de myofibrose dystrophique chez la souris mdx déficiente en dystrophine. 1- Étude multiparamétrique clinique. La saisie par la même équipe des données fonctionnelles musculaires, cardiaques, respiratoires et cognitives de 75 patients atteints de DMD (tous génotypés et présentant une absence complète de dystrophine musculaire), suivis pendant &gt;10 ans, a permis d'établir un modèle multiparamétrique satisfaisant à deux dimensions principales, cognitive et motrice, et de définir 4 clusters phénotypiques : (i) DMD cognitive et motrice congénitale (20%), (ii) DMD classique (28%), (iii) DMD motrice pure modérée (22%), (iv) DMD motrice pure sévère (30%). La corrélation génotypephénotype était restreinte à la seule atteinte cognitive. Des indicateurs pronostics précoce ont été identifiés et validés sur une 2ème série de 34 patients. 2- Étude histopathologique. Les variations de sévérité de l'atteinte musculaire n'étant pas expliquées par la génétique moléculaire, nous avons cherché à corréler les paramètres moteurs et la biopsie musculaire prélevée dans le quadriceps à un stade précoce (3-7 ans) chez 25 patients (analyse stéréologique des images numérisées pour les paramètres élémentaires: nécrose/régénération, fibres hypercontractées, adipocytes, fibrose endomysiale et périmysiale). Seule la fibrose endomysiale était associée à un pronostic moteur défavorable (p&lt;0.002) attesté par l'âge de perte de marche, la force du quadriceps et le testing musculaire global à 10 ans. Cette fibrose endomysiale dissociait les capillaires des myofibres (écartement x 2.5), et s'accompagnait d'une augmentation sélective des macrophages CD206+ activés dans la voie alterne (M2) et d'une diminution relative des cellules satellites musculaires (p&lt;0.0001). Ces données suggèrent un rôle clé de la fibrose endomysiale (et des macrophages M2 profibrosant) et dans la sévérité clinique de la DMD. 3- Étude expérimentale. Ces éléments rendent nécessaire la mise au point d'un modèle expérimental de myofibrose dystrophique, la souris mdx présentant peu de fibrose et un déficit moteur modéré et tardif. Nous avons mis au point une nouvelle méthode de lésion musculaire focale profibrosante du tibialis antérieur chez la souris mdx (piqûres multiples quotidiennes pendant 15 jours). Une fibrose endomysiale attestée par un fort immunomarquage du collagène I (à 8, 30, 60 et 90 jours) a été quantifiée et corrélée à la perte de la force musculaire dans la patte lésée (comparée au muscle contralatéral). Ces résultats légitiment et préparent les futures stratégies thérapeutiques "anti-fibrosantes" dans la DMD</abstract> / The clinical heterogeneity of Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) may prove a major obstacle to the interpretation of therapeutic trials but has not been subjected to systematic analysis. In a first part, we present a statistical analysis on two series of steroid-free patients with complete lack of dystrophin determined by Western blot. Series 1 consisting of 75 patients longitudinally evaluated for motor, respiratory, cardiac and cognitive functions by the same team (median follow-up: 10.5yrs) was subjected to exploratory data analysis whose main conclusion were confirmed by exploration of data obtained from 34 routinely evaluated patients (series 2). Main outcome measures were age at loss of ambulation and of onset of contractures, manual muscle testing (MMT), cardiac and respiratory functional tests, general intelligence assessment (IQ), educational level. Multivariate exploratory analysis of series 1 classified 70/75 patients into 4 clusters with distinctive intellectual and motor outcomes: A (congenital DMD, 20%): markedly poor intellectual and motor outcome; B (classical DMD, 28%): intermediate intellectual and poor motor outcome; C (moderate pure motor DMD, 22%): normal intelligence and delayed motor impairment; and D (severe pure motor DMD, 30%): normal intelligence and poor motor outcome. Group A patients had the most severe respiratory and cardiac involvement. Frequency of mutations upstream to exon 30 increased from group A to D, but genotype/phenotype correlations were restricted to cognition. Diagnostic accuracy tests showed that combination of "clinical onset &lt;2yrs" with "mental retardation" reliably assigned patients to group A (sensitivity 0.93, specificity 0.98). Combination of "lower limb MMT score&gt;6 at 8yrs" with "normal or borderline mental status" reliably assigned patients to group C (sensitivity: 1, specificity: 0.94). These early criteria were also predictive of "congenital DMD" and "moderate pure motor DMD" in series 2. In a second part, we included 25 steroid-free DMD patients in a multiparametric analysis plotting initial histological alterations in quadriceps muscle with 13 relevant clinical data collected by the same team over a long-term follow-up (mean&gt;10yrs). Elementary histological parameters (fiber size, hypercontracted fibers, necrotic/basophilic fibers, edema, endomysial and perimysial fibrosis, and fatty degeneration) were assessed by morphometry. Endomysial fibrosis was the sole myopathological parameter significantly correlated with poor motor outcome, assessed by quadriceps muscle strength, manual muscle testing of upper and lower limbs at 10yrs, and age at ambulation loss (all p&lt;0.002). Motor outcome and fibrosis were not correlated with genotype. Myofibers exhibited oxidative stress-induced protein alterations and became separated from capillaries by fibrosis, which was associated with both increase of CD206+ alternatively activated macrophages and relative decrease of CD56+ satellite cells (both p&lt;0.0001). This study provides firm basis for antifibrotic therapeutic strategies in DMD, and supports the view that alternatively activated macrophages, known to inhibit myogenesis while promoting collagen-producing cell formation, play a key role in myofibrosis. In the third experimental part, experiments were conducted on mdx mice at 6-8 weeks of age. Fifteen micropunctures were made daily in the right tibialis anterior (TA) muscle with micropins used for entomology (150 µm diameter) during 2 weeks. Our data suggest that repeated microinjuries of muscle deficient in dystrophin protein triggers a endomysial fibrotic process that stabilizes with time well associated with muscle strenght decrease. Endomysial fibrosis seems to be one of the target of therapy in DMD. This satisfactory model will be usefull to study the mechanisms of fibrosis process in dystrophin deficient muscle and to evaluate antifibrotic treatment