Factors associated with attendance at sporting events has been well documented in recent literature. Numerous studies have been conducted in college and professional sports, yet little work to date has examined factors associated with attendance in the minor leagues. Very few studies have specifically investigated special game day promotions at the minor league level. Based on the absence of some of the potential drawing factors associated with college and professional sports, these promotional activities at the minor league level become of greater interest. Specifically, game day promotions utilized in minor league hockey were of interest in the current study. The purpose of this study was to investigate factors associated with attendance in the East Coast Hockey League (ECHL) in the 2001-2002 season and specifically the game day promotions and their affect on attendance. Data was collected using the feedback from a survey of fourteen marketing personnel of ECHL franchises during the summer of 2002. The survey was adapted from a previous questionnaire (Branvold & Bowers, 1992) utilized to assess factors related to attendance. Other questions were added to the Branvold and Bowers tool in order to address other factors of interest. Results indicated that several factors including promotions were correlated with attendance. Those factors contributed more than 45% of the variance in predicting attendance. Specific promotions such as "Puck Night", "Scouts Night" and "Fan Appreciation Night" were identified as the most successful in increasing attendance. Weekend promotions were more related to an increase in attendance than weekday promotions and children were the most popular target group. Attendance based on promotional games versus non-promotional games varied greatly among the fourteen teams of interest. The findings are similar to previous research on promotions and attendance. Promotions have been associated with a discernible increase in attendance for most markets. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Recreation Management, Sport Management and Physical Education In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2003. / Date of Defense: February 28, 2003. / Social-Cultural Influences and Attendance / Includes bibliographical references. / Brenda Pitts, Professor Directing Dissertation; Akihito Kamata, Outside Committee Member; Annie. Clement, Committee Member; Aubrey Kent, Committee Member.

This study analyzed Major League Baseball player performance using sabermetric measurements of offensive productivity in order to determine how player production was impacted as a result of free agency. The theoretical framework for this research is based on two competing theories of social and organizational behavior: J. S. Adams' Equity Theory and Victor Vroom's Expectancy Theory. Both equity theory and expectancy theory were developed to predict worker performance under conditions of inequity in terms of under-reward and over-reward. In conjunction with both theories, this study assumed the following: (1) that players in the final year of their contracts, just prior to becoming eligible for free agency, perceived inequitable conditions of under-reward, and (2) that players who signed a new multi-year free agent contract perceived inequitable conditions of over-reward in the first year of a new contract. Sabermetric measurements, OPS, Runs Created, and Win Shares, were utilized to assess performance improvements or decrements for players in each of the following three years: (1) pre-option year- the year prior to a player becoming a free agent, (2) option year- the last year of a player's contract, and (3) post-option year- the first year of a player's new contract. Subjects consisted of Major League Baseball free-agents who signed multi-year contracts of at least two years or more with a their current team or another major league franchise between the years of 1976 and 2003 (n = 234). In order to qualify for inclusion, players must have had a minimum of 250 at-bats in each of the three individual years being examined: pre-option year, option year, and post-option year. Covariates, age and team winning percentage, were incorporated into this study in an attempt to control for specific factors thought to impact individual player performance. Results of multivariate analyses of variance (MANOVA) revealed that free agency had a significant impact on each of the three performance measures. Follow-up univariate analyses of variance (ANOVA) indicated that player performance significantly declined for each of the dependent variables following free agency. When controlling for age, multivariate analyses of covariance (MANCOVA) revealed no significant effects with regards to the impact of free agency on player performance. When controlling for team winning percentage, however, multivariate and univariate analyses indicated that post-option year team winning percentage significantly affected the impact of free agency on player productivity. For each of the dependent variables, significant findings were consistent with expectancy theory predictions. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2006. / Date of Defense: March 16, 2006. / Baseball, Free Agency, Sabermetrics, Performance / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeff James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Joseph Travis, Outside Committee Member; Charles Imwold, Committee Member; Michael Mondello, Committee Member.

When attending or watching sporting events, amateur or professional, people are exposed to a variety of advertising. People form attitudes toward advertising that influence their decision making processes to purchase a particular advertiser's product. The current study examines a new construct, attitude toward advertising through sport, derived from Pollay and Mittal's (1993) model of attitude toward advertising in general. Through an exploratory investigation a scale to measure attitude toward advertising through sport is tested. The preliminary results from several stages provide support for the conceptualization and measurement of the belief dimensions proposed to influence attitudes toward advertising through sport. The assessments of the structural equation model reveal that respondents' perceived beliefs of product information and hedonism/pleasure about advertising through sport play significant roles in accounting for their overall attitude toward advertising through sport. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2006. / Date of Defense: February 27, 2006. / Advertising through Sport, Attitude, Belief, Scale Development / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Charles F. Hofacker, Outside Committee Member; R. Aubrey W. Kent, Committee Member; Michael J. Mondello, Committee Member.

While much of the sponsorship literature has focused on analyzing the effects of sponsorship on consumers (e.g., Gwinner, 1997; Madrigal, 2001; Rajaretnam, 1994), research on the internal effects of sponsorship on a sponsor company's workforce has been rare (Grimes & Meenaghan, 1998; Hickman, Lawrence, & Ward, 2005). At the same time, both, sponsorship and internal marketing researchers have recommended further investigation of the use of external marketing tools such as sponsorship for internal marketing purposes (Cornwell & Maignan, 1995; Dolphin, 2003; Lings & Greenley, 2005). The purpose of this study was to assess how sponsorship as a marketing communications tool affects employees' perceptions of an organization's corporate image, their person-organization fit, and organizational identification. Data were collected from employees of a quick service restaurant chain (N=231). After establishing the reliability and validity of the measurement instrument, multiple regression analysis was used to determine the relationship between four different sponsorship factors and the outcome variables. Sponsor-property fit perceptions as well as the perceived sponsor goodwill were most influential on all the outcome factors, while a personal interest in the sport by employees appeared to foster organizational identification. Overall, the study results suggested that attitudes towards sponsorship activities rub off on employees in a similar way as they do on consumers, and supported its use as a potential internal marketing tool. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport and Recreation Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Summer Semester, 2008. / Date of Defense: April 22, 2008. / Sponsorship, Marketing, Strategic Management, Sport sponsorship, Internal Marketing, Marketing Communications / Includes bibliographical references. / Aubrey Kent, Professor Directing Dissertation; Joe Cronin, Outside Committee Member; Jeffrey James, Committee Member; Michael Mondello, Committee Member.

Marketing researchers have primarily studied radical and incremental product innovations based on technological development from the firm's perspective. The inescapable observation is that product innovation research has developed with an emphasis on tangible products (i.e., goods) and little empirical effort to investigate the innovativeness of intangible products (i.e., services, experiences, and events) from the customer's perspective. Although recent discussions in the marketing literature highlight the importance of studying service and experience innovations, most existing models are still conceptual. This dissertation is one of the first attempts to develop a model of intangible event innovativeness from the consumer's perspective and for relating event innovativeness to customer retention. From a pragmatic perspective, the conceptual model of event innovativeness is developed based on a review of the relevant literature and an examination of data collected from two focus groups. Two quantitative research studies (n = 297, n = 333) validate the proposed conceptualization of event innovativeness and examine the hypothesized relationships impacting consumer behavioral intentions through innovative event experiences. In the early stages of the study, an exploratory maximum likelihood factor analysis with an oblique rotation was employed. From the factor analysis, six dimensions emerged and were interpreted as (1) player performance, (2) respectful access, (3) self-service technology, (4) aesthetic environment, (5) brand community, and (6) loyalty program. The number of dimensions in the original model was reduced from eight to six; consumers did not seem to distinguish between skill performance and thrill performance and between social environment and brand community. The second data set was collected from spectators at a college football game in order to validate the idea of event innovativeness. A confirmatory maximum likelihood factor analysis found that two dimensions (player performance and aesthetic environment) had positive effects on overall innovativeness in the context of spectator sports. Furthermore, this study extended previous research by examining the link between event innovativeness and customer retention. Including two attitudinal constructs (consumer satisfaction and brand equity) as mediators, the results indicate that innovative event experiences lead not only to increased consumer satisfaction in the affective domain, but also to enhanced brand equity in the cognitive domain, and eventually to increased behavioral intentions (i.e., repeat purchase, word-of-mouth, and share of wallet). The current study represents an initial effort to provide managers with more holistic information pertaining to the factors engaging consumers through innovative event experiences. The ideas merit further research with respect to formulating an explanation of what factors contribute most to engaging consumers through innovative event experiences. The proposed model and recommendations for future research provide numerous opportunities to continue advancing our knowledge of customer retention through innovation. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport and Recreation Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Spring Semester, 2009. / Date of Defense: March 3, 2009. / Event Marketing, Sport Marketing, Product Innovation, Service Innovation, Experience Innovation / Includes bibliographical references. / Jeffrey D. James, Professor Directing Dissertation; Akihito Kamata, Outside Committee Member; J. Joseph Cronin Jr., Committee Member; Michael J. Mondello, Committee Member.

Attendance at sporting events remains a vital part of sporting contests, as spectators have been shown to have a significant impact upon the atmosphere of an event (Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2012). As more attractive options for consuming sporting events continue to arise (e.g., higher-definition televisions, game watch parties, etc.), sport managers should seek to better understand what elements of in-person spectating are most important for repeat attendance. Sport stadium atmosphere researchers have identified other spectators as a positive source of influence for future attendance intentions (Biscaia, Correia Rosado, Maroco, & Ross, 2012; Lee, Lee, Seo, & Green, 2012; Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2012). However, spectators have only been studied in aggregate, as though all spectators were homogenous and part of one entire group. Through the present research I evaluated a specific sub-group, the Official Supporter’s Group (OSG) Section, of the spectating population for its effects on the non-OSG spectators in attendance at Major League Soccer games. The stated purpose of the OSG Section is to assist their team through chants, singing, and cheering. As a means of achieving this goal, those within the OSG Section attempt to involve other spectators outside the section to increase the volume and intensity of support for their team. The existence of these supporter’s groups is explained through Social Identity Theory and Complexity Theory. OSGs and the OSG Section are theorized to be sub-components of the Sport Stadium Atmosphere (SSA) framework (Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2010; Uhrich & Koenigstorfer, 2009). This framework consists of three dimensions of environmental stimuli (organizer-induced, game-induced, and spectator-induced) that have a positive, direct relationship with consumer affective responses (Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2010). This research was conducted to evaluate the impact of those making up the OSG Section as an influential aspect of the spectator-induced dimension. The two goals of this research were to add to the SSA framework (Uhrich & Benkenstein, 2010; Uhrich & Koenigstorfer, 2009) in two ways: 1) by evaluating the effect of a previously unstudied aspect of the spectating population: the OSG Section, and 2) by including satisfaction as a measure of the effects of the stadium atmosphere upon the consumer. Three stages were employed to investigate the goals above. First, a questionnaire was developed to survey spectators of Major League Soccer (MLS) games during the 2018 season. Item-development processes were undertaken, based on the recommendations of Hinkin’s (1998) scale development process, to evaluate perceived effects of the organizer-induced stimuli, game-induced stimuli, the influence of the OSG Section, and outcome variables of satisfaction, intention to return, and word-of-mouth recommendations. Second, a pilot study was conducted to evaluate the new items developed and to refine the instrument for the main study. Finally, a main study was employed to collect data from a second sample of the population (MLS spectators) using the refined survey instrument. Confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling techniques were used to analyze collected data and test the hypothesized relationships. The members and actions of those comprising the OSG Section were found to have a significant, positive relationship with both resulting spectator emotions and satisfaction. Further, there is evidence to further confirm the relationship between satisfaction and behavioral intentions (Kuenzel & Yassim, 2007; Matsuoka et al., 2003). Practical implications, limitations, and future research directions are all discussed in the final chapter. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Summer Semester 2018. / June 19, 2018. / Atmosphere, Satisfaction, Soccer, Stadium, Supporters / Includes bibliographical references. / Amy C. H. Kim, Professor Directing Dissertation; Edward Gray, University Representative; Jeffrey D. James, Committee Member; Joshua I. Newman, Committee Member.

Recently, cities that bid for hosting the Olympic Games have withdrawn due to public referendums and lack of political support. Although the International Olympic Committee’s (IOC) efforts to underline the importance of the Olympic legacy at a series of symposiums such as “The legacy of the Olympic Games 1984-2000” and the “Olympic Agenda of 2020”, numerous media platforms and studies have presented the negative consequences of hosting the Olympics. Compared to other legacies, the social legacy of the Olympics was relatively overlooked until recently. Although the IOC has set objectives to uphold the positive aspects of its social legacy, the development of practical strategies to address the socially-driven issues caused by hosting the Olympics still remains as a challenge to overcome. In efforts to fill this gap, the purpose of this study is to analyze the current process and evaluation system for the Olympic social legacy based on the frame of newspaper coverage, as well as discussing the strategies on how to achieve social innovation through the Olympic Games based on the SIOG model. I employed the media framing as the theoretical framework and conduct a content analysis of newspaper coverage in the U.S, The New York Times, USA Today, Los Angeles Times, and The Washington Post published between 1990 and 2016. The frame found in newspaper articles about the Olympic social legacy in the present study enabled me to investigate how the residents of the host city have experienced the social legacy of the Olympic Games and the problems behind the current process (Entman, 1993; Misener, 2012). In addition, the result of the analysis provided implications of how the Olympic social legacy needs to be planned and managed based on the SIOG model (Entman, 1993; Misener, 2012). The frames identified from the newspaper coverage revealed that there was a gap between the resident’s needs and actual provisions provided by hosting the Olympic Games. Overall, the social legacies planned by the organizers and committees did not work effectively before, during, and after the Olympic Games. In addition, By applying the social innovation framework to the social legacy of the Olympic Games, hosting the Olympic Games will provide solutions for problems focusing on needs that are unmet, which can resolve these various problems and make the integrated society sustainable. / A Thesis submitted to the Department of Sport Management in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science. / Summer Semester 2018. / June 18, 2018. / Includes bibliographical references. / Amy Chan Hyung Kim, Professor Directing Thesis; Joshua Newman, Committee Member; Hanhan Xue, Committee Member.

Creating and developing an international sport federation is an early step before govern-ing a sport on a global scale. Then the organization must seek International Olympic Committee recognition to become the legitimate international federation rather than being self-proclaimed. Next the international federation lobbies to have its sport placed on the Olympic Games competi-tion program. In just two years, the International Triathlon Union went from being a self-proclaimed world governing body for the sport in 1989 to being recognized officially as such from the IOC. Three years later the sport was placed on the competition program for the 2000 Sydney Summer Olympic Games. No sport has accomplished so much in such a short period of time. Using Institutional Theory as the framework, this study looked at identifying the various isomorphic influences exerted upon the International Triathlon Union as the organization moved towards its Olympic goal. While institutional theory describes why organizations move towards homogeneity, typically by three traditional isomorphisms, this study also looked at the variables of leadership and culture to see if they might also influence the direction of this international fed-eration. Additionally, interaction between all the isomorphic influences and variables was also considered. Using a qualitative methodology incorporating heuristic inquiry and a construction-ist philosophy, a variety of pressures, both internal and external, were exerted on the newly formed international federation. Coercive isomorphism, provided by International Olympic Committee, was the strongest influence on the organization's creation and development. However, mimetic and normative isomorphic influences were also present indicating that a hierarchy and interaction exists among and between the three isomorphisms in this case study. Additionally, leadership and cultural in-fluences also guided how ITU was created and developed. While Institutional Theory has fo-cused on macro elements regarding an organization's move towards homogeneity, there is also evidence that micro elements provide similar sway. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Spring Semester 2006. / Date of Defense: March 29, 2006. / Olympics, Triathlon, Institutional Theory, Isomorphism / Includes bibliographical references. / Aubrey Kent, Professor Directing Dissertation; Jeff Milligan, Outside Committee Member; King Beach, Committee Member; Jeffrey James, Committee Member; Cecile Reynaud, Committee Member.

The main purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between coaches' burnout, coaches' behaviors, and levels of burnout and satisfaction experienced by college athletes. The secondary purposes were to examine how coaches' levels of burnout were related to perceived coaching behavior, and to examine the link between athletes' levels of burnout and satisfaction. Forty two male and female coaches employed at the 8 public universities in Jordan, and 413 male and female college athletes participated in this study. The participants completed translated version of the Leadership Scale for Sports (LSS; Chelladurai & Saleh, 1980), Athlete Burnout Questionnaire (ABQ; Raedeke & Smith, 2001), Athlete Satisfaction Questionnaire (ASQ; Riemer & Chelladurai, 1998), and Maslach Burnout Inventory-Educators Survey (Maslach, Jackson, & Leiter, 1996). Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, Pearson product-moment correlation coefficients, and stepwise regression. The results of this study suggest that there is a significant relationship between coaches' leadership behaviors and burnout. It was discovered that personal accomplishment and emotional exhaustion to be significant predictors of the coaches' leadership behaviors. Significant relationships were found between perceived coaching behaviors and athletes' outcomes. Athletes who perceived their coaches as providing more training and instruction, social support, feedback, and exhibiting more democratic behavior and less autocratic behavior were more satisfied and less burned out. In addition, significant negative relationships were found between athletes' satisfaction and athletes' burnout. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management, and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2003. / Date of Defense: November 10, 2003. / Jordan, Satisfaction, Coaching behavior, Burnout, College athlete / Includes bibliographical references. / Aubrey Kent, Professor Directing Dissertation; Gershon Tenenbaum, Outside Committee Member; E. Newton Jackson, Committee Member; Jerome Quarterman, Committee Member.

The primary purpose of this study was to develop a valid and reliable instrument to assess sport fan motivation. Also, the new measure was employed to examine the relationship between sport fan motivation and ethnic identity. One hundred sixty nine college students from two southeastern institutions participated in this study. Data were analyzed using exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, Bivariate correlation, t test, ANOVA, and descriptive statistics. The Fan Motivation Scale (FMS), developed in this study, consisted of six components with 22 items. The number of items under every component range from 5 to 2 items (quality of the game 4 items, escape 5 items, boredom avoidance 5 items, social 3 items, entertainment 3 items, and sport atmosphere 2 items). In addition, two hypotheses were tested in the current study. The first hypothesis was that ethnic identity is positively related to sport fan motivation. The second hypothesis assumed that there was a difference between African Americans and European Americans in their ethnic identity. The results revealed the FMS is a reliable measure with an overall alpha score of 0.90. Significant differences were found between participants in the total FMS and some of the subscales based on gender and ethnicity. However, the outcomes of the samples examined in this study do not support the first hypothesis. Therefore, no significant relationship was found between sport fan motivation and ethnic identity. Regarding the second hypothesis, a significant difference was found between African Americans and European Americans in their ethnic identity. / A Dissertation submitted to the Department of Sport Management, Recreation Management and Physical Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. / Degree Awarded: Fall Semester, 2004. / Date of Defense: October 21, 2004. / Sport fan motivation, ethnic identity / Includes bibliographical references. / E. Newton Jackson, Jr., Professor Directing Dissertation; Akihito Kamata, Outside Committee Member; Jerome Quarterman, Committee Member; Mounir Ragheb, Committee Member.