This study focus on the house ruins and land use in Nyokana, a former village section in Cata, by looking at their location, number and the people who lived there and their living before the Betterment plan was carried through. This is done by studying an old map and documents of Cata, field studies with GPS-using and by interviewing mostly old inhabitants. The result is a basis for the development of the planned tourism track within the heritage project, wich runs by BRC and University of Fort Hare.

Hällaryd archipelago, consisiting of approx. 50 islands, islets and skerries, is situated east of Karlshamn city in Blekinge province. The archipelago has been shaped into a rift valley by volcanic activity, the inland ice and maritime climate. The archipelago is divided into seven main islands: Bockö, Västra Bokö, Ekö, Hallö, Joggesö, Mjöö and Tärnö. This essay will connect population changes with land use.

Considering water quality, landuse and reducion of wetland area in the watershed of Tidan, areas witch are in need of constructions to improve the water quality are identified. Constructions are suggested to be located within the smaller streams in the watershed, so that the water is treated before it reaches the stream Tidan.

Many active stream conduits within karst aquifers transport and deposit non-carbonate, clastic sediment. However, little is known about how these sediments impact conduit development and enlargement rates. For example, can dissolution take place at the sediment/bedrock interface beneath a flowing stream? If not, cavern enlargement might be dominated by flood conditions when the bare rock of the walls and ceiling are in contact with the dissolving fluids. An approach using limestone tablet weight loss experiments, along with water sampling and geochemical modeling, has been undertaken to understand the nature of fluid movement and chemistry with the sediment beneath an active flowing cave stream within the Kentucky's Mammoth Cave System. Fluid flow and carbonate chemistry were compared between the active stream and within the sediment at 15, 30, 60, and 90 cm below the stream bed. It was found that carbon dioxide pressure within the interstitial fluids was elevated an order of magnitude above that of the stream waters, having levels as much as 31 times that of atmospheric background, presumably from microbial decomposition of organic material. The fluids were all under-saturated with respect to calcite (SI= -0.4 to -0.9), and limestone blocks buried at these levels all dissolved (rates from 0.8 to 21.9 g m -2 yr -1). These results suggest that at some locations the limestone bedrock may be dissolving beneath clastic sediment deposits; which in turn has implications for understanding rates and geometries of conduit evolution within karst aquifers.

Limited research exists concerning flash flooding in the United States. However, flash floods can occur anywhere and cause more fatalities than any other weather related natural disaster. Eastern Kentucky experienced an average of 41 flash floods per year (1993-2002), yet little research exists for this region. Therefore, this paper presents an analysis of the particularly devastating flash flood event of 3-4 August 2001, which resulted in $15 million worth of property damage and two deaths. Previous studies indicate that flash floods typically occur under relatively 'benign' conditions, the most common characteristics being a quasi-stationary system and high atmospheric moisture. The slow moving nature of these systems, coupled with low dewpoint depressions, leads to the overabundance of precipitation that produces flash floods. Unfortunately, this relatively 'benign' nature of weather systems poses a challenge for accurate forecasting of flash flooding. Furthermore, severe weather threats, such as tornadoes, tend to overshadow the threats posed by flash flooding, sometimes interfering with the timely issuance of flash flood warnings. To improve the accuracy of flash flood forecasting, several methods have been developed. For instance, lightning strike density helps forecasters in the West to locate regions more likely to receive the heavy rains necessary for flash flooding. Numerical forecasting models also help forecasters, especially when necessary data does not exist for the forecast area. One such model is the Penn State/ NCAR Mesoscale Model MM5. This model consists of several options allowing for variations in climate and terrain. MM5 was used to simulate the 3-4 August 2001 flash flood event, since upper air data does not exist for Eastern Kentucky. The model used for this paper utilized the Grell parameterization scheme, which provided better results than the other parameterization schemes tested (Kain-Fritsch). The Eastern Kentucky flash flood event, like the majority of other flash flood events throughout the Contiguous United States, did in fact occur under relatively benign conditions. This event occurred as heavy rains fell ahead of a trough axis associated with a slow-moving cold front. As the west-east oriented front moved southward, it stalled along the Appalachians and pivoted, becoming southwest-northeast oriented. High atmospheric moisture existed from the surface through 500-mb ahead of the front. The winds were weak and from a northerly direction, while the stability indices indicated marginal instability throughout the event. About half of the flash floods reported during this event occurred prior to the issuance of a flash flood warning, while no record of a flash flood watch existed for any of the counties prior to flash flooding. Accurate forecasting of flash floods during this relatively benign event was further hindered by the lack of a flash flood climatology for the region.

Rural areas are often more susceptible to high concentrations of ground-level ozone (O3) than urban areas. However, rural populations are, for the most part, unaware of this problem. Currently the rural areas of Kentucky have no daily forecast for O3. This research addresses the issue by using methodologies from previous Kentucky O3 modeling research to develop a daily forecast model within Geographic Information Systems. The rural O3 model developed by Kendrick (2005) will be used in this research, as a Standard model, along with an application of the model introduced by Cobourn and Hubbard (1999), as the Hi model, to be used on days that O3 concentrations are expected. When the forecasted maximum temperature is less (greater) than 87°F, the diurnal temperature range is less (greater) than 27, and the probability for precipitation is less (greater) than 50 percent then the Hybrid will choose the Standard (Hi) model. Data for the both models came from the Model Output Statistic by the National Weather Service. The Standard model proves to be successful in forecasting O3 while the Hi model is less accurate. Synoptic meteorology conditions were analyzed to find patterns that are associated with high O3 concentrations for rural areas. Data collected at Mammoth Cave National Park (MCNP) (30 miles north of Bowling Green, KY) during 1998 to 2005 was used in this analysis. The methodology presented by Sheridan (2002) was used to define the overall synoptic patterns that were present during 1998 to 2003. It was found that Dry Moderate and Dry Tropical air masses frequently had high O3 associated with them during late August and early September. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is responsible for policies that fulfill the primary and secondary goals of the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), which includes O3. Prior to 1998 it was determined that al-hour average ambient O3 measurement less than 125 parts per billion (ppb) would be sufficient in achieving both the NAAQS primary and secondary goals. However, it was found that health problems could still occur at levels less than 125 ppb, so the policy was changed to an 8-hour average of 85 ppb. Many researchers explained that this new policy might cause rural areas to break exceedance more often (Baumgardner and Edgerton, 1998; Cobourn and Hubbard, 1999; Barna et al., 2001; Sistla et al., 2001; Reynolds et al, 2003). In this research it was found that the number of exceedance days at MCNP increased by 43 days from the 1-hour to the 8-hour policy. The number of exceedance days has the potential to increase at MCNP if the EPA accepts a proposed 8-hour policy in early 2008. The reason for this proposal is because recently it has been discovered that O3 at levels lower than 85 ppb for 8-hours can affect human health. The proposal requires that the current 8-hour average be adjusted from 85 ppb to a range within 70 - 75 ppb. If accepted the proposed policy would not take effect until 2013.

In previous studies of urban commutes, little attention has been paid to commute patterns in smaller urban areas. In this study, the concept of "excess commute" (EC) is applied to the Bowling Green-Warren County Metropolitan Statistical Area (BGWCMSA) in Kentucky. EC quantifies the portion of commute distance explained by the overall spatial separation of jobs and households. Results in this thesis research show that approximately 65% of commute distance by persons driving alone in the study area can be explained by the physical locations of homes relative to job sites as well as the existing roadway network, leaving an EC of 35% attributable to other factors. This EC of 35% is less than those of larger metropolitan areas in previous studies, suggesting that EC does decline with the sizes of urban areas to a certain degree. I low ever, the analysis of "used commute potential" (UCP) reveals that workers in the study area on average use a higher percentage of its total potential in comparison to larger cities. A possible explanation is that BGWCMSA is the regional employment center for south central Kentucky. There is a relatively large percentage of commuters living in the rural areas and the surrounding counties, causing a significant number of commutes with long distances. In addition, the analysis of job distribution shows that BGWCMSA has developed a number of specialized employment subcenters. With some subcenters located in the outskirts of the urbanized area, cross-commuting between suburbs also accounts for a substantial portion of the overall commutes in the region, leading to trips with longer distances as well. Both EC and UCP are also applied to the data disaggregated by household income levels to determine if workers with lower household income are more likely to be spatially separated from their workplaces, necessitating longer commutes. In the disaggregate analysis, all workers in the study area are assigned to four household income groups; 1) those with less than $30,000 annually; 2) between $30,000 and $49,999 annually; 3) between $50,000 and $74,999; and 4) $75,000 or more. Results show that it is not the first income group but the second and third income groups of workers that, on average, travel the longest distances with the highest EC and UCP. Workers in the $75,000 or more income group are, on average, the most efficient commuters by both excess commute and commute potential measures. In summary, this work, by highlighting the presence of excess commuting methodology in the smallest metropolitan statistical area yet studied, provides an impetus for planning agencies in smaller urban areas to obviate the negative effects inherent in automobile use. As cities grow, there is a unique opportunity to develop policies and programs to reduce nonspatial factors that affect the amount of time and distance spent in the automobile in the journey to work (JTW). Nonspatial factors that may be impacted by policies include congestion, lack of transit, and parking availability, among many others. The prevailing trend of urban growth in recent decades is the emergence of employment subcenters on the urban fringe, with some being very specialized in employment type and others of a more mixed nature. Results from this stud} confirm the findings of previous work that smaller urban areas are more likely to use more of their commute capacity and are thus less efficient than larger ones, due to the lack of exurban centers with mixed land use types. Specifically, where there is already a regional jobshousing imbalance, the lack of such centers exacerbates the condition of longer commutes and higher UCP. This suggests that the placement and type of employment centers are critical to the commuting characteristics of a given area.

The purpose of this project was to develop a comprehensive analytical method for the characterization of soil by examining particle size, elemental composition, and percent organic matter in soil, and to determine its forensic applicability. In this study, five soils of varying geological locations were examined including two samples from Kentucky; two samples from Pennsylvania; and one from Washington D C A Gilson sonic sieve shaker was used to separate fractions of soil to determine particle size, and a JEOL scanning electron microscope with a Kevex EDS detector was used to determine elemental composition. These techniques coupled with percent total carbon analysis (determined with a LECO CHN-1000) provide a method that measures three forensic properties instead of one for the forensic comparison of soil.

Around two centuries ago, changes were made to the entrances of Mammoth Cave and its passages. Today the Historic Entrance to Mammoth Cave is enlarged and the passage just beyond the entrance known as Houchins' Narrows has been cleared of rubble and filled with sediments. These enlargements have resulted in an increase in airflow throughout the Historic Section of the cave causing environmental conditions such as air temperature and airflow to fluctuate. These fluctuations have negatively impacted inhabitants and contents of the cave system. To restore natural conditions within the cave, Science and Resource Management personnel at Mammoth Cave National Park have been collecting large data sets on atmospheric conditions inside the cave. The author has access to data from eight sites within the cave. In this thesis, the author provides a brief introduction to the effects of the increase in airflow as well as a short discussion of the data gathered by Science and Resource Management. The author then proposes a natural cause for airflow (i.e., convection) in Mammoth Cave, constructs empirical models with this as the underlying driving force, and uses atmospheric data to verify the validity of the claim of convection as the force driving airflow in Mammoth Cave. Data from the site in Houchins' Narrows is used to predict atmospheric data at other locations in the cave. The author concludes this thesis with time series analysis on data from Houchins' Narrows.

Although iron-based permeable reactive barriers are gaining importance in the treatment of groundwater contaminants, there have been field observations indicating that sulphide may affect the degradation rates of certain chlorinated ethenes. Previous observations suggest that sulphide has little effect on TCE degradation rates but can cause a significant decline in the rate of degradation of cis-DCE. This study was conducted to systematically test the effects of S2- on TCE, cis-DCE, trans-DCE, 1,1-DCE and VC. Two different concentrations of sulphide (5 and 50 mg/L) were used in the column experiments. The results showed that the rate of TCE degradation was only slightly reduce in the presence of sulphide, while there was substantial reduction in the rates of degradation of cis-DCE, 1,1-DCE and VC. Trans-DCE was affected by sulphide, however, not as severely as cis-DCE, 1,1-DCE and VC. Raman Spectra showed the presence of a small amount of sulphide precipitates, and corrosion potential measurements showed that sulphide shifted the corrosion potential of the iron to less negative values by approximately 70 mV, suggesting that the change in corrosion potential was not responsible for the preferential degradation of TCE relative cis-DCE and VC. The dominant pathway for TCE degradation is β-elimination, while that for cis-DCE and VC is generally considered to be hydrogenolysis, though there is also evidence in the literature indicating that cis-DCE and VC can also degrade by catalytic hydrogenation. The results indicate that sulphide does not inhibit β-elimination but severely limits the hydrogenolysis/catalytic hydrogenation pathway. The fact that sulphide inhibited the conversion of ethene to ethane, a known catalytic reaction, indicated that sulphide is acting as a catalyst poison. It is therefore concluded that the primary mechanism for the transformation of cis-DCE to VC and for VC to ethene is catalytic hydrogenation, and that sulphide inhibits these transformations through its role as a catalyst poison.