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L’un des défis majeurs relevé par la gravimétrie moderne consiste en la détermination de modèles mathématiques et de cartes numériques du champ de gravité de la Terre dont la fiabilité est identique quelle que soit l’échelle spatiale considérée en domaines terrestre, littoral, marin et sous-marin. Aujourd’hui, les harmoniques de haut degré correspondant aux courtes longueurs d’onde du champ de gravité sont encore affectés de grandes incertitudes de par la diversité et les différences de précision et de résolution des techniques gravimétriques permettant de les atteindre. Le principal obstacle à l’amélioration de la résolution et la précision des modèles vient de ce que les systèmes de gravimétrie et gradiométrie mobiles, seuls instruments qui permettent des acquisitions à précision et à résolution spatiale homogènes, demeurent encore encombrants et gros consommateurs d’énergie, ce qui interdit en particulier leur installation sur des drones terrestres, aériens, navals de surface et sous-marins. L’intérêt de ce type de porteur est de pouvoir opérer des acquisitions très proches des sources ce qui accroît considérablement la restitution des variations locales de la gravité. Le développement d’un nouveau type de capteur gravimétrique à faible encombrement et moindre consommation énergétique apparaît donc indispensable pour répondre à la problématique posée par la mesure des courtes longueurs d’onde du champ de gravité.Dans le cadre de ses activités de recherche en gravimétrie, le Laboratoire de Géomatique et Foncier (Cnam/GeF EA 4630), en collaboration avec le Laboratoire de Recherche en Géodésie (LAREG) de l’Institut National de l’information Géographique et forestière (IGN), le Laboratoire Domaines Océaniques (LDO, UMR CNRS 6538, UBO), l’Institut Français de Recherche pour l’Exploitation de la Mer (IFREMER) et le Service Hydrographique et Océanographique de la Marine (SHOM), développe un instrument novateur qui permet la mesure dynamique du champ de gravité terrestre en fond de mer.Le système baptisé GraviMob (système de Gravimétrie Mobile) ne nécessite pas de plateforme stabilisée et se fixe rigidement dans l’habitacle du véhicule porteur, en l’occurrence, un submersible autonome. Le cœur du système est constitué de triades d’accéléromètres, permettant une mesure vectorielle de l’accélération de pesanteur. Un traitement des mesures par filtrage de Kalman, intégrant les données de position et d’orientation du véhicule porteur, réalise la restitution du champ de pesanteur dans un référentiel adapté à son interprétation et son exploitation. Ce prototype instrumental a été expérimenté en Mer Méditerranée au cours de l’année 2016, à l’aplomb de profils gravimétriques de surface acquis antérieurement par le SHOM. La comparaison du signal gravimétrique obtenu en fond de mer avec les données du SHOM indique une répétabilité de la tendance générale du signal gravimétrique à 5 mGal près.Ce manuscrit aborde successivement, l’établissement de l’équation d’observation du système GraviMob, l’étalonnage et l’orientation des accéléromètres du capteur, la stratégie d’estimation du champ de pesanteur par un filtre de Kalman intégrant un modèle d’évolution des composantes du champ de pesanteur et un modèle d’observation tenant compte du bruit de mesure, le traitement et l’analyse des mesures acquises lors de son expérimentation en Mer Méditerranée, puis la comparaison du signal gravimétrique obtenu avec les données de référence. / One of the major challenges of modern gravimetry consists in determining mathematical models and digital maps of the Earth’s gravity field, the reliability of which is identical whatever the spatial scale considered in terrestrial, coastal, marine and submarine domains. Today, the harmonics of high degree corresponding to the short wavelengths of the gravity field are still affected by great uncertainties due to the diversity and the differences in precision and resolution of the gravimetric techniques making it possible to reach them. The main obstacle to improve the resolution and accuracy of models is that gravimetry and gradiometry mobile devices, the only instruments that allow homogeneous precision and spatial resolution acquisitions, are still bulky and energy-intensive, which prohibits their installation on terrestrial, aerial, surface and submarine drones. The interest of this type of carrier is to make acquisitions very close to the sources which considerably increases the restitution of the local variations of the gravity. The development of a new type of gravimetric sensor with small size and lower energy consumption appears therefore essential to answer the problematic posed by the measurement of the short wavelenghts of the gravity field.As part of its research in gravimetry, the Laboratoire Géomatique et Foncier (Cnam/GeF EA 4630), in collaboration with the Laboratory for Research Geodesy (LAREG) of the National Institute for Geographic and Forest Information (IGN), the Oceanic Domains Laboratory (LDO, UMR, CNRS 6538, UBO), the French Research Institute for the Exploitation of the Sea (IFREMER) and the Marine Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service (SHOM), develops an innovative instrument which allows the dynamic measurement of the Earth’s gravity field in the subsea domain.The system, called GraviMob (Gravimetry Mobile System), does not require a stabilized platform and is rigidly attached to the carrier vehicule, in this case an Autonomous Underwater Vehicule (AUV). The heart of the system consists of triads of accelerometers, allowing a vector measurement of the gravity. A Kalman filter, integrating the position and orientation data of the carrier vehicle, performs the estimation of the gravity field in a frame adapted to its interpretation. This instrumental prototype has been tested in the Mediterranean Sea during the year 2016. The comparison of the gravimetric signal obtained near the seabed with the surface gravimetric profiles, previously acquired by the SHOM, indicates a repeatability of the general trend of the gravimetric signal to within 5 mGal.This manuscript deals successively with the establishment of the observation equation of the GraviMob system, the calibration and orientation of the accelerometers, the gravity field estimation strategy by a Kalman filter, integrating an evolution model of the gravity field components and an observation model taking the measurement noise into account, the processing and analysis of the measurements acquired during its experimentation in the Mediterranean Sea, then the comparison of the gravimetric signal obtained with the reference data.

This master thesis deals with the greenhouse effect, various gases and methods of measurement. On the greenhouse effect is viewed from its historical dating, despite changes in atmospheric composition. It contains a theoretical analysis of the individual gases. It focuses on the most harmful greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, ozone, chlorofluorocarbons and halons. Analysis methods for detection of gaseous substances. Part of this work is focus on the detection of nitrogen dioxide, chloro-fluorocarbon and methane. The data is processed using a ATmega’s microcontroller and then sent to an Internet server thingspeak.com. If the device proves successful, will be used as a laboratory exercise in the course Ecology in electronics.

This semester thesis deals with the greenhouse effect, various gases and methods of measurement. On the greenhouse effect is viewed from its historical dating, despite changes in atmospheric composition and reactions of individual institutions. It contains a theoretical analysis of the individual gases. It focuses on the most harmful greenhouse gases such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, ozone, chlorofluorocarbons and halons. Analysis methods for detection of gaseous substances. Part of this work is focus on the detection of nitrogen dioxide and chloro-fluorocarbon. The data is processed using a microcontroller and then sent to an Internet server thingspeak.com. If the device proves successful, will be used as a laboratory exercise in the course Ecology in electronics.

Les sismologues ont révélé l'existence d'une anisotropie sismique complexe dans la graine terrestre. Cette thèse, en deux parties, présente deux approches différentes pour, d'une part, expliquer l'existence de cette anisotropie avec des modèles de graine numérique et, d'autre part, étudier l'effet des transformations de phase sur cette anisotropie.Dans un premier temps, nous avons construit un outil de simulation de la propagation des rais sismiques à travers une graine numérique, afin d'étudier la possibilité de reproduire numériquement les données sismologiques et de contraindre la dynamique et la minéralogie de la graine. Nous concluons qu'aucune structure du fer cubique ne permet de développer une anisotropie sismique significative. Seule la structure hexagonale compacte permet de le faire. Parmi les modèles géodynamiques quadripolaires étudiés, la croissance équatoriale préférentielle est le processus dynamique qui présente le meilleur accord avec les observations de dépendance à la profondeur et d'anisotropie polaire. L'ajout d'une stratification chimique permet d'amplifier d'environ 40% l'anisotropie globale mais augmente la dispersion des résidus sismiques, ce qui n'est pas conforme aux observations de dépendance à la profondeur. Enfin, une croissance dendritique (texture de solidification) est peu compatible avec une anisotropie principale Nord-Sud. Il apparaît clairement qu'aucun de ces modèles géodynamiques ne permet d'obtenir une amplitude d'anisotropie suffisante en utilisant les propriétés élastiques publiées pour le fer dans la graine. A l'issue de ce travail, de nombreux autres processus dynamiques restent encore à étudier, tels que les forces de Lorentz et la translation-convection thermique, processus bipolaire qui présente un fort intérêt pour la caractérisation de la composante hémisphérique de l'anisotropie sismique.Dans un deuxième temps, nous avons procédé à des expériences de transition de phase α-ε (fer cubique centré vers fer hexagonal compact) dans le fer pur. Nous avons simulé les textures résultantes à l'aide du mécanisme de Burgers. Nous avons confronté nos simulations aux résultats expérimentaux. Nous avons pu confirmer la validité du mécanisme de transformation de Burgers. Nous avons trouvé une forte sélection de variant sous l'effet de la contrainte non-hydrostatique dans le sens direct α→ε, produisant de fortes textures. Dans le sens inverse ε→α, on observe des textures finales très faibles, voire aléatoires. Appliqués avec prudence au cas de la graine terrestre, nos résultats indiquent que la transformation de phase du fer hexagonal à cubique ne peut pas expliquer la forte anisotropie observée. Nous avons aussi noté une mémoire de texture partielle, déjà documentée pour d'autres métaux de transition. Enfin, nous avons procédé à des tests préliminaires en cellule diamant en rotation. Les résultats de ces expériences de cisaillement ont également montré un très bon accord avec les simulations fondées sur le mécanisme de Burgers. En revanche, nous avons pu constater de grands écarts entre nos résultats expérimentaux et les simulations en cisaillement présentées dans la littérature [Levitas et al., 2010], notamment en termes de gradient de contraintes. / Seismologists revealed the existence of a complex seismic anisotropy in the Earth's inner core. In this thesis we took two different approaches in order to characterize the anisotropy: in a first part, we tried to explain this anisotropy using formation models of inner core and, in a second part, we considered the impact of eventual phase transitions on anisotropy.Firstly, we simulate the propagation of seismic rays through a numerically grown inner core, in order to measure the seismic anisotropy to compare with actual observations and to constrain the dynamics and mineralogy of the inner core. We conclude that no cubic structure of iron may produce a significant global anisotropy. Only the hexagonal compact phase of iron may produce a measurable signal. Considering a panel of quadripolar geodynamical models, we observe that simple preferential equatorial growth is the most consistent with seismological observations of a polar anisotropy and depth dependence of seismic residuals. Chemical stratification amplifies the global anisotropy by about 40%, but at the same time increases the scatter of residuals in a way that is poorly compatible with the observed depth dependence. Finally the addition of dendritic growth (solidification texture) prohibits the emergence of a first order North-South anisotropy. Independently of the geodynamical model it appears clearly that none of these geodynamical models the development of an anisotropy consistent with observations when using the published elastic properties of iron at inner core conditions. Following this work, several geodynamical models remain to be studied such as magnetic forcing (Lorentz forces). Models involving translation-thermal convection are of great interest as they may account for the hemispherical component of the seismic anisotropy.Secondly, we performed experiments on the α-ε (cubic centered to hexagonal compact iron) phase transition in pure iron. We compare our experimental texture results with our simulations of the transformation considering Burgers mechanism. We confirm here the Burgers atomic path as the mechanism activated during the α-ε transformation in iron. We find direct evidence of a strong variant selection controlled by non-hydrostatic stresses in the diamond anvil cell during the forward α→ε transformation, producing strong textures. The opposite will occur with the reverse ε→α phase transition where an almost complete randomization is to be expected. Our observations can be applied with some caution to the Earth's inner core and show that the strong seismic anisotropy in the inner core may not be explained by the occurrence of a hexagonal to cubic phase transition in the inner core. A limited texture memory effect was brought into light, already documented for other transition metals. At last, we performed a preliminary study on the effect of shear on the α-ε phase transition in pure iron using a rotational cell. Again the α-ε phase transformation in iron can be modelized by the Burgers mechanism. We find that simulations in the literature [Levitas et al., 2010] fail to reproduce our experimental results, particularly in terms of stress field.

Ideal magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) simulations are known to have problems in satisfying the solenoidal constraint (i.e. the divergence of magnetic field should be equal to zero, $ ablacdotvec{B} = 0$). The simulations become unstable unless specific measures have been taken. In this thesis, a solenoidal constraint satisfying technique that allows discrete satisfaction of the solenoidal constraint up to the machine accuracy is presented and validated with a variety of test cases. Due to its inspiration from Chorin's artificial compressibility method developed for incompressible CFD applications, the technique was named as extit{artificial compressibility analogy (ACA)} approach. It is demonstrated that ACA is a purely hyperbolic, stable and consistent technique, which is moreover easy to implement. Unlike some other techniques, it does not pose any problems of the sort that $ ablacdotvec{B}$ errors accumulate in the vicinity of the stagnant regions of flow. With these crucial properties, ACA is thought to be a remedy to the drawbacks of the most commonly used solenoidal constraint satisfying techniques in the literature namely: Incorrect shock capturing and poor performance of the convective stabilization mechanism in regions of stagnant flow for Powell's source term method; exceedingly complex implementation for constrained transport technique due to the staggered grid representation; computationally expensive nature due to the necessity of a Poisson solver combined with hyperbolic/elliptic numerical methods for classical projection schemes. In the first chapter of the thesis, general background knowledge is given about plasmas, MHD and its history, a certain class of upwind finite volume methods, namely Riemann solvers, and their applications in MHD, the definition, constituents, formation mechanisms and effects of space weather and some of the space missions that are and will be performed in its prediction. Secondly, detailed analysis of the compressible ideal MHD equations is given in the form of the derivation of the equations, their dimensionless numbers which will be of use to specify the flows in the following chapters, and finally, the presentation of the MHD waves and discontinuities, which indicates the complexity of the system of ideal MHD equations and therefore their further numerical analysis. The next discussion is about the main subject of the thesis, namely the solenoidal constraint satisfying techniques. First of all, the definition and significance of the solenoidal constraint is given. Afterwards, the most common solenoidal constraint satisfying techniques in the literature are reviewed along with their abovementioned drawbacks. Moreover, particular emphasis is given to the Powell's source term approach which was also implemented in the upwind finite volume MHD solver developed. In addition, the hyperbolic divergence cleaning technique is presented in detail together with the resemblance and differences between it and ACA. Some other solenoidal constraint satisfying techniques are briefly mentioned at this stage. After these, ACA is presented in the following way: The point of inspiration, which is the analogy made with Chorin's artificial compressibility method developed for incompressible CFD, the introduction of the modified system of ideal MHD equations due to ACA, the derivation of the wave equation governing the propagation of $ ablacdotvec{B}$ errors and the analytical consistency proof. Having finished the core discussion of the thesis, the solver developed and its constituents are given in the fourth chapter. Furthermore, a brief overview of the platform into which this solver was implemented, namely COOLFluiD, is also given at this point. Afterwards, a thorough numerical verification of the ACA approach has been made on an increasingly complex suite of test cases. The results obtained with ACA and Powell's source term implementations are given in order to numerically analyse and verify ACA and compare the two methods and validate them with the results from literature. The sixth chapter is devoted to further validation of ACA performed with a variety of more advanced space weather-related simulations. In this chapter, also the $vec{B}_{ extrm{0}} + vec{B}_{ extrm{1}}$ splitting technique used to treat planetary magnetosphere is presented along with its application to ACA and Powell's source term approaches. This technique is utilized in obtaining the solar wind/Earth's magnetosphere interaction results and is based on suppressing the direct inclusion of the Earth's magnetic field, which is a dipole field, in the solution variables. In this way, problems are avoided with the energy equation that could arise from the drastic change of the ratio of the dipole field and the variable field computed by the solver (i.e. $frac{lvertvec{B}_{ extrm{0}}lvert}{lvertvec{B}_{ extrm{1}}lvert}$) in the computational domain. Finally, conclusions and future perspectives related to the material presented in the thesis are put forward.

In this thesis, quantum-mechanical calculations within density-functional theory on metallic systems are presented. The overarching goal has been to investigate effects of disorder. In particular, one of the properties investigated is the bindingenergy shifts for core electrons in binary alloys using different theoretical methods. These methods are compared with each other and with experimental results. One such method, the so-called Slater-Janak transition state method relies on the assumption that the single-particle eigenvalues within density-functional theory are linear functions of their respective occupation number. This assumption is investigated and it is found that while the eigenvalues to a first approximation show linear behavior, there are also nonlinearities which can influence the core-level binding energy shifts. Another area of investigation has been iron based alloys at pressures corresponding to those in the Earth’s inner core. This has been done for the hexagonal close packed and face entered cubic structures. The effects of alloying iron with magnesium and nickel on the equation of state as well on the elastic properties have been investigated. The calculations have shown that the hexagonal close packed structure in FeNi is more isotropic than the face-centered cubic structure, and that adding Mg to Fe has a large impact on the elastic properties. Finally, the effects of disorder due to thermal motion of the atoms have been investigated through ab-initio molecular dynamics simulations. Within the limits of this method and the setup, it is found that the face-centered cubic structure of molybdenum can be dynamically stabilized at high temperature, leading to a metastable structure, on the average. The dynamical stabilization of face-centered cubic molybdenum also rendered it possible to accurately calculate the lattice stability relative to the body-centered cubic phase. Inclusion of temperature effects for the lattice stability using ab-initio molecular dynamics simulations resolves the disagreement between ab-initio calculations and thermochemical methods.

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The thesis presents the analysis of the impact of the recent vertical move-ments of the Earth‘s crust on the measurements of levelling as well as levelling networks submitting the results of theoretical research and practical observa-tions. The aim of the work is to investigate the impact on the results of measure-ments in terms of levelling and levelling networks, to work out the methodology for their evaluation to be applied in compiling and maintaining of these net-works. The objectivity of the experiments deals with the levelling networks of Lithuania and data received. The following tasks were solved: 1) there was perfected the methodological approach for the evaluation of the forecasting models in terms of geoindexes of the territory with intention to improve the forecasting.; 2) there was theoretically grounded as well as worked out the methodology for the evaluation of the im-pact of the recent vertical movements of the Earth’s crust on the measurements of levelling and on levelling networks; 3) there was derived the methodology of reduction of differences of measured altitudes, taking into account the selected moment of time; 4) there were made investigations on the possibilities of up-grading the models of forecasting by applying diverse groups of geoindexes; the recommendations were prepared how to use the models of forecasting; 5) while applying the proposed methods and recommendations there were carried out the experiments and evaluation of the impact of the... [to full text] / Disertacijoje nagrinėjama dabartinių žemės plutos judesių įtaka niveliacijos matavimams ir niveliacijos tinklams. Pateikiami teorinių ir praktinių eksperi-mentų tyrimo rezultatai. Darbo tikslas – ištirti dabartinių vertikaliųjų žemės plutos judesių įtaką ni-veliavimo matavimo rezultatams ir niveliacijos tinklams, parengti jų vertinimo metodiką sudarant ir eksploatuojant šiuos tinklus. Tyrimų objektas – Lietuvos teritorijos niveliacijos tinklai ir jų matavimų duomenys. Siekiant įgyvendinti tyrimų tikslą, išspręsti šie uždaviniai: 1) siekiant page-rinti dabartinių vertikaliųjų žemės plutos judesių prognozės modelius, patobulin-ta jų sąsajų su teritorijos georodikliais vertinimo metodika; 2) teoriškai pagrįsta ir parengta dabartinių vertikaliųjų žemės plutos judesių įtakos niveliacijos mata-vimams ir niveliacijos tinklams vertinimo metodika; 3) parengta išmatuotų aukščių skirtumų redukavimo, atsižvelgiant į pasirinktą laiko momentą, metodi-ka; 4) atlikti dabartinių vertikaliųjų žemės plutos judesių prognozės modelių to-bulinimo galimybių, taikant skirtingas georodiklių grupes, tyrimai; parengtos rekomendacijos prognozės modeliams taikyti; 5) taikant parengtas metodikas ir rekomendacijas, atlikti dabartinių vertikaliųjų žemės plutos judesių įtakos, suda-rant ir eksploatuojant Lietuvos niveliacijos tinklus, tyrimai ir vertinimas; 6) api-bendrinus teorinius ir eksperimentinius tyrimus, parengtos rekomendacijos ver-tikaliųjų žemės plutos judesių įtakai vertinti, sudarant ir... [toliau žr. visą tekstą]

No / The ESA/Roscosmos ExoMars rover will be launched in 2018. The primary aim of the mission will be to find evidence of extinct or extant life by extracting samples from the subsurface of Mars. The rover will incorporate a drill that is capable of extracting cores from depths of up to 2 m, a Sample Preparation and Distribution System (SPDS) that will crush the core into small grains and a suite of analytical instruments. A key component of the analytical suite will be the Raman Laser Spectrometer (RLS) that will be used to probe the molecular and mineralogical composition of the samples. In this work we consider the capability of the proposed Raman spectrometer to detect reduced carbon (possibly associated with evidence for extinct life) and to identify the level of thermal alteration/maturity. The Raman analysis of 21 natural samples of shale (originating from regions exhibiting different levels of thermal maturity) is described and it is shown that reduced carbon levels as low as 0.08% can be readily detected. It is also demonstrated that the Raman spectra obtained with the instrument can be used to distinguish between samples exhibiting high and low levels of thermal maturity and that reduced carbon can be detected in samples exposed to significant levels of oxidation (as expected on the surface of Mars). (C) 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.