The South African Government, in the Budget Review of 2008, proposed to impose a 2c/kWh tax on the sale of electricity generated from non-renewable sources, to be collected at source by the producers/generators of electricity. This tax will create distortions in the South African economy. The research study aims to identify measures that can be taken to negate the negative competitiveness impact of the tax. In the first part of the study, we applied the Global Trade Analysis Project (GTAP) model, which is coordinated by the Centre for Global Trade Analysis at Purdue University. The GTAP model is the pre-eminent modelling framework for the analysis of trade and environmental issues across countries. GTAP is a multi-region CGE model designed for comparative-static analysis of trade policy issues. Various versions were constructed and the closure was changed to reflect the South African reality more accurately. After the national as well as international economic and environmental impacts were analysed, we considered Border Tax Adjustments (BTAs) as a possible remedy to negate the negative competitiveness impact of the tax. Utilising theoretical Heckscher-Ohlin methodology, as well as the GTAP model, we showed that BTAs will not negate the adverse economic impact of an environmental tax. Instead, reversed BTAs, through gains of trade, could reverse the negative economic impact of an electricity generation tax, while enabling an economy to retain most of the environmental benefits of the tax. We also considered the impact of an integrated approach, consisting of an electricity generation tax and a demand side policy, on the welfare of households. To analyse this, we used the University of Pretoria General Equilibrium Model (UPGEM). The model was extended to reflect Equivalent Variation values and we updated the database to include import tariffs. It was then shown that reversed BTAs could be used to offset the regressiveness of the electricity generation tax. Policy implications from the study will be useful for macroeconomic policies, international trade negotiations and environmental policies to increase the welfare of society. / Thesis (DCom)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Economics / unrestricted

South Africa emerged as a country that fought and overcame arduous oppression.. Following the democratic revolution of 1994, the new government regime embarked on an enormous electrification rollout with the mandate of ensuring all households in the country have access to electricity. This did not come without huge challenges and the electricity supply network was already under pressure. This led to load shedding and in turn impeded economic growth. Consequently South Africa requires significant investment in new electricity infrastructure. In order to ensure sustainable economic growth, the provision of reliable electricity is a critical strategic imperative. One of the objectives (according to the Electricity Regulation Act, No. 4 of 2006) is to facilitate investment in the electricity supply industry. To empower and encourage electricity producers, including foreign investors, to enter into the market, it is imperative to critically assess the current tax allowances available for the construction of power station assets within South Africa's domestic shores. In addition, the concept of load shedding is not limited to South Africa, but is a form of reducing demand on the energy generating system and is experienced internationally. To understand the tax incentives offered by international countries to reduce demand on the electricity supply network, will form part of this assessment. Benchmarking will be done on South Africa's domestic tax incentives offered to local electricity generators against international suppliers of electricity. / Dissertation (MCom)--University of Pretoria, 2013. / lmchunu2014 / Taxation / unrestricted

The report investigates the feasibility of accessing waste heat at kiln 7 in the Cementa AB cement plant in Slite, Gotland. The background is provided, with a description of the cement manufacturing process. Most of the report concerns itself with the heat transfer capabilities of the plant, therefore a short description of the heat flow within the most essential equipment is provided. The investigation follows a set of steps to derive the conclusion. The first step investigates previous studies to obtain the three most feasible heat sources. The second step investigates the available heat of the selected sources. In the third step, accessing the source is discussed and investigated for both convection and radiation heat transfer methods. It also includes the sizing of the required heat exchangers. Using the new sources, the connection possibilities to existing infrastructure and its benefits are investigated in step four. The connections were made to the existing infrastructure used at kiln 8 for electrical generation and district heating supply. The selections of the most feasible solutions are provided based on heat recovery, payback period and practicality. The final step in the study provides for the final design, which consists of three possible connections or all of them combined. In the conclusion, the final design would provide for a reduction in oil burned, fuel consumption and CO2 emissions and an increase in electricity generated by the existing system. It is recommended that only one of the three connections be installed. / <p>The thesis was conducted at Cementa AB in Slite, Gotland. The supervisor at the plant was Fred Grönwall.</p>

Sundsvall Energi har ansvaret för den gamla deponin på Blåbergets avfallsanläggning strax västerut från Sundsvall. Mellan slutet av 1960-talet fram till och med 2008 har ca 2 miljoner ton avfall deponerats. Från denna deponi har det under en längre tid producerats stora mängder deponigas. Deponigasen har tidigare använts i en hetvattenpanna vid Nacksta och tillfört värme till fjärrvärmesystemet. På grund av ineffektiv drift och minskande metaninnehåll i deponigasen stoppades transporten av deponigas till Nacksta 2013. Därefter har deponigasen enbart använts för fackling vilket innebär att deponigasen förbränns i en gasfackla. Enligt bestämmelser måste deponigas behandlas och användas för exempelvis energiutvinning eftersom innehållet i deponigasen har en kraftig växthuseffekt då gasen består av ca 40–60 % metan och 30–50 % koldioxid. Metan har en 28 gånger högre potential för global uppvärmning jämfört med koldioxid över en 100-årsperiod. I detta examensarbete har syftet varit att undersöka vilka möjligheter som finns för att ta vara på deponigasens energiinnehåll och därmed föreslå ett tekniskt alternativ gentemot enbart fackling av deponigasen. Dessutom har arbetet som syfte att beskriva den miljömässiga- och ekonomiska nyttan. Arbetet har utförts genom att energiinnehållet har tagits fram genom formler och antaganden samt att värmebehovet och uppskattningen av investeringskostnaden tagits fram. Nuvärdesmetoden och PayOffmetoden använts i samband ekonomiberäkningen i arbetet. Värmebehovet på anläggningen fick styra över hur mycket effekt som värmekällan bör ha för att klara högsta årsbehovet. Examensarbetet resulterade i att det mest lämpliga teknikalternativet, nämligen Stirlingmotorn, användes i detta arbete. På grund av ogynnsamma förutsättningar för att täcka värmebehovet på anläggningen har antagandet gjorts att den producerade värmen i stället gör miljönytta genom att tillföra värme till en av lakvattendammarna. Den producerade elen beräknades ha en täckningsgrad på ca 19 % av totala energiförbrukningen på anläggningen. Lönsamhetskalkylerna visar att lönsamheten för en eventuell investering blir ogynnsam vid låga elpriser samt vid låga metanhalter. Dock blir lönsamheten lämpligare vid höga elpriser och lägre investeringskostnader. Dessutom kunde det konstateras att lönsamheten blir betydligt gynnsammare om värmeproduktionen skulle ha nyttiggjorts samtidigt som elproduktionen. / Sundsvall Energi is responsible for taking care of the old landfill at  Blåberget waste facility west of Sundsvall. Between the end of the 1960s to year 2008, about 2 million tons of waste were deposit at the landfill. Large amounts of landfill gas have been produced at this landfill over the years. The landfill gas has previously been burned in a boiler at Nacksta and therefore added some heat to the district heating system. Due to inefficiency and declining methane content in the landfill gas, the distribution of landfill gas to Nacksta ended in 2013. Since then, the landfill gas has only been torched at the landfill site. Since the landfill gas has a strong greenhouse effect and due to regulations, the landfill gas must be treated and used for, as an example, energy utilization. Methane has a 28 times higher contribution risk to global warming compared to carbon dioxide over a 100-year period. In this project, the purpose has been to investigate what opportunities there are to utilize the energy content in the landfill gas and by that suggest an alternative instead of just torching the landfill gas. Additionally, the further purpose with the project is to describe the  environmental and economic benefits of the solution. The work has been done by determine the energy content by using formulas and assumptions. In addition, the heat demand for the landfill site as well as the estimation of investment cost was determined. The NPV and the Pay-Off was used in the economic calculations. The heat demand of the landfill site was the deciding factor of how much power the technical alternative should have to meet the highest annual heat demand. The project resulted in the fact that the most suitable technical alternative, namely the Stirling engine, became the technical choice in this work. Due to unfavorable conditions for the heat production from the Stirling engines at the plant, the assumption was made that the produced heat instead got  to supply heat to one of the leachate ponds. The electricity produced was calculated to meet around 19% of the total energy consumption at the landfill site. The economical estimates showed that the profitability of an eventual investment becomes unfavorable at low electricity prices and at low methane contents. However, the investment becomes far more profitable at high electricity prices and at lower investment costs. In addition, the results showed that profitability would be far more favorable if the produced heat had been utilized for property heating simultaneously as the electricity got produced.

Kuba har i dagsläget ett högt beroende av importerad olja, för att tillgodose sin växande efterfrågan på elektricitet. Importen sker främst från Venezuela. Detta beroende gör Kuba känsligt för ändringar i oljepriser samt det politiska klimatet. Den nuvarande krisen i Venezuela har haft en betydande inverkan på Kubas elproduktion. Genom att utöka landets förnybara energikällor kan Kuba minska sitt beroende av andra länder och diversifiera sin energiförsörjning. Detta kommer även att leda till en positiv miljöpåverkan då landets CO 2-utsläpp minskar. Kubas geografiska läge har ideala förhållanden för förnyelsebar energigenerering, så som solkraft. Solkraft utvecklas konstant och innehåller en hög potential. Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) är en teknologi där speglar och/eller linser används för att koncentrera solljus till en liten yta som konverterar solljuset till värme. Denna värme kan sedan användas i termodynamiska cykler. Det finns två huvudsakliga problem med implementering av CSP på Kuba. För det första är CSP beroende av momentana väderförhållanden, vilket leder till en oregelbunden elproduktion. För det andra har CSP höga investeringskostnader. För att adressera dessa problem, är det möjligt att implementera CSP i ett redan existerande kraftverk med regelbunden energikälla, d.v.s. skapa ett hybridkraftverk. På så vis uppnås regelbunden elproduktion med signifikant lägre investeringskostnad. Ett sådant existerande kraftverk kan hittas hos många av Kubas sockerbruk. Den här studien undersöker möjligheten att implementera solkraft i sockerbruket Carlos Baliño, beläget i Villa Clara, Kuba. Fabriken är självförsörjande av elektricitet på årlig basis. De använder en Rankine-cykel för att generera el och processvärme som används i sockerframställningen. Bränslet som används är bagasse, en restprodukt efter att sockerjuicen pressats ut ur sockerrören. Fyra CSP-teknologier och tre implementeringslayouts undersöktes, vilket resulterade i att parabolic trough-teknologin och förvärmning av vatten ansågs vara de bästa alternativen för Kuba och Carlos Baliño. Vidare undersöktes två olika scenarier för CSP. Scenario 1 innefattar implementering av CSP i sockerbruket under rådande skick och Scenario 2 består av implementering av CSP efter en investering gjorts i en Condensing Extraction turbin (CEST). Resultatet visar att Carlos Baliño bör investera i CEST innan de implementerar CSP, det vill säga Scenario 2. Detta beror på att i scenario 1 är det inte möjligt att generera elektricitet utanför sockersäsongen, vilket leder till att en stor del av solpotentialen inte kan utnyttjas. Den maximala investeringskostnaden för scenario 1 är 3,7 MUSD, vilket inte är en realistisk kostnad. Den maximala investeringskostnaden för scenario 2 beror av tillgänglig bagasseimport och är 5,9 – 7,2 MUSD. Att investera i CSP rekommenderas ej om bagasseimporten är obegränsad. Givet att bagasseimporten är begränsad skulle CSP-implementeringen leda till en utökad elproduktion av 5,4 – 7,2 GWh/år, en årlig minskning av oljeanvändandet med 16 100 – 21 800 tunnor och minskade CO2-utsläpp med 12 00-16 00 ton årligen. Carlos Baliños ekonomiska resultat skulle öka med 0,5 MUSD/år och den kubanska statens med 0,7 – 0,9 MUSD/år. Framtida studier rekommenderas undersöka möjligheten till generering av el året runt vid Carlos Baliño utan en CEST, solkraftsefterfrågan på nationell nivå och potentiella utvecklingar av solkraft hos Carlos Baliño. / Cuba is currently highly dependent on imported oil, mainly from Venezuela, to meet their growing electricity demand. This dependence makes Cuba sensitive to changes in oil price as well as the political climate. The current crisis in Venezuela has a large impact on Cuba’s electricity generation. By expanding its renewable energy sources Cuba could decrease their dependence on other countries and diversify their energy supply. Moreover, it would have a positive climate impact by reducing the country’s CO2-emissions. Geographically, Cuba has ideal conditions for renewable energy utilization, such as solar power. Solar energy is constantly progressing and is considered a great source of energy. Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) is a technology which applies mirrors and/or lenses to concentrate the sunlight onto a small area which converts the sunlight into heat, possible to use in a thermodynamic cycle. There are mainly two problems with the implementation of CSP in Cuba. Firstly, CSP is a non-dispatchable power generating system since it is dependent on the instantaneous weather conditions. Secondly, it has high investment costs. One way of solving these problems is by implementation CSP in an already existing power plants with a dispatchable source of energy, making it a hybrid power plant. Accordingly, the hybrid power plant would be dispatchable and the investment costs would be significantly lower. Existing power plants can be found in Cuban sugar mills. This study investigates the possibility to implement solar power in the sugar mill Carlos Baliño, located in Villa Clara, Cuba. The factory is currently self-sufficient electricity wise on a yearly basis, using a co-generation Rankine cycle to generate electricity and process heat used in the sugar production. The fuel used is bagasse, a rest product obtained after the sugar juice has been pressed out of the sugar canes. Four CSP-technologies and three implementation layouts were examined, resulting in the parabolic trough-technology and feedwater heating being considered the optimal solution. Furthermore, two different scenarios for CSP was investigated; implementation of CSP in the mill at the current state (scenario 1) or after investing in a Condensing-Extraction Turbine (CEST) (scenario 2). The results show that Carlos Baliño should invest in a CEST before considering implementation of CSP. Off-season operation is not available for scenario 1, leading to a vast amount of solar potential being unexploited. The maximal investment allowed for scenario 1 is 3.7 MUSD, which is not a realistic number. The maximal investment allowed for in scenario 2 is 5.9 – 7.2 MUSD, depending on bagasse import availability. If bagasse import is unlimited, it is not recommended to invest in solar power. Implementation of CSP in scenario 2 regarding bagasse import limits would yearly lead to an additional electricity generation at Carlos Baliño of 5.4 – 7.3 GWh, decrease the oil usage with 16,100 – 21,800 barrels and the CO2-emissons with 1,200 – 1,600 tonnes. Carlos Baliño’s annual yield would increase with 0.5 – 0.6 MUSD/year and the Cuban states annual yield would increase with 0.7 – 0.9 MUSD/year. Future work is recommended to explore alternatives to all year-around electricity generation in Carlos Baliño without investing in a CEST, investigate solar power demand on a national level, and examine possible developments of the suggested solar field, for instance solar-only operation.

No description available.

Thesis (MPhil (Public Management and Planning))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: South Africa has a mean annual precipitation far lower than the global average. This is a fundamental constraint to development, especially when the country has already run out of surplus water and dilution capacity. To add further pressure, southern Africa’s water resources are expected to decrease as a result of climate change. Despite the potential devastation, the country’s response to climate change has been limited. South Africa’s energy sector is dominated by coal power stations and is the country’s primary emitter of carbon dioxide. Given the significantly higher water usage of coal-fired power plants compared to that of most renewable energy power plants, the transition to a clean energy infrastructure might be more successfully motivated by water scarcity than by the promise of reduced carbon emissions. This article analyses more critically the impact of coal-fired electricity generation on South Africa’s water resources, by estimating a water-use figure that extends backwards from the power plant to include water used during extraction of the coal. This figure can then be compared to the water usage of alternative electricity generation options. It is then possible to estimate how much water could be saved by substituting these alternatives in place of additional coal-fired plants. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Suid-Afrika se gemiddelde jaarlikse neerslag is baie laer as die wêreldwye gemiddelde. Dit plaas ’n wesenlike beperking op ontwikkeling, veral aangesien die land se surplus water- en verdunningskapasiteit reeds uitgeput is. Om die saak verder te vererger, word verwag dat Suidelike Afrika se waterbronne gaan kleiner word as gevolg van klimaatsverandering. Ten spyte van die potensiële ramp, was die land se reaksie op klimaatsverandering tot dusver baie beperk. Steenkoolkragstasies, wat Suid-Afrika se energiesektor oorheers, is die land se primêre bron van koolstofdioksieduitlating. Gegewe die beduidend hoër waterverbruik van steenkoolkragstasies teenoor dié van die meeste kragstasies wat met hernubare energie werk, kan die verandering na ’n skoonenergie-infrastruktuur meer suksesvol gemotiveer word deur waterskaarste as deur die belofte van verminderde koolstofuitlatings. Hierdie artikel analiseer die impak van steenkoolgedrewe elektrisiteitsopwekking op Suid-Afrika se waterbronne meer krities deur te beraam hoeveel water verbruik word van die kragstasie terug tot by die ontginning van die steenkool. Hierdie syfer kan dan vergelyk word met die waterverbruik van alternatiewe kragopwekkingsopsies. Dit is dan moontlik om te beraam hoeveel water gespaar kan word deur hierdie alternatiewe op te rig in plaas van bykomende steenkoolkragstasies.

Diploma thesis deals with current priorities of energy policy within EU region, where is a substantial emphasis placed on exploitation of renewable energy sources (RES). There is mentioned historical development in the first part as well as an actual approach to energy policy by EU. Further is evaluated exploitation of RES and their proprotion on electricity generation. I also provide analysis whether current energy objectives can be met. In the last part I deal with photovoltaic industry both in EU and Czechia. Energy extraction from sunshine is currently the most growing field industry all over the world and especially in EU.

[pt] O trabalho compara sistemas de conversão de energia para geração de energia elétrica, com ênfase no caso brasileiro, levando-se em consideração todos os fatores relevantes envolvidos, em especial os riscos associados a cada um dos componentes do custo final da energia. Os modelos de custos usuais de engenharia tendem a favorecer a geração de energia tradicional em detrimento das renováveis alternativas, ao ignorar os riscos envolvidos, baseando-se apenas no menor preço do quilowatt-hora gerado. O modelo financeiro aplicado nesta comparação baseia-se na Teoria de Portfólios, desenvolvida por Harry Markowitz. Primeiramente são avaliados os resultados do binômio risco-retorno relacionados à matriz prevista pela EPE - Empresa de Pesquisa Energética no Plano Nacional de Energia - 2030, publicado em 2006. Posteriormente, as alternativas indicadas pelo modelo são comparadas. Os resultados mostraram que a matriz prevista pela EPE em 2030 não está otimizada do ponto de vista do binômio retorno-risco dos investimentos em geração elétrica. Os aumentos da participação das fontes renováveis não tradicionais à matriz, especificamente, resíduos das plantações de cana-de-açúcar e energia eólica, reduzem tanto o risco quanto o custo médio do quilowatt-hora gerado. Este resultado vale mesmo quando se variam os dados de entrada, notadamente os riscos associados aos custos de geração relacionados às diversas tecnologias consideradas, assim como os coeficientes de correlação entre elas. As participações dessas duas fontes renováveis na fronteira eficiente, tecnicamente viável, resultaram em portfólios bastante robustos, imunes às variações imputadas. / [en] The work compares current approaches for evaluating and planning Brazilian energy mixes for future power generation, based not only on energy cost components contribution to a portfolio, but on their contribution to portfolio risk, as well. Energy planners have traditionally used least-cost as a basis for generating capacity additions, understating the true value of non traditional renewable technologies for decreasing risk. This project applies widely accepted finance theory, Mean-Variance Portfolio Theory, developed by Harry Markowitz, to provide an economic basis for selecting alternative generating scenarios. First, Brazil`s expected future generating mix for 2030 as predicted by Empresa de Pesquisa Energética in its 2030 Brazilian Power Planning, published in 2006, is evaluated. This mix is referred to as the reference EPE scenario. The risk-return properties of Brazil`s expected EPE mix for the year 2030 is compared to other possible mixes on the projected efficient frontier. The model finds solutions that are superior to the EPE mix in that they reduce risk or cost or both, while including a greater share of wind and biomass from sugar cane in the mix. The basic findings of this analysis seem quite robust, and do not materially change the shape of the efficient frontier, where it is technically feasible, even when the risk parameter estimates and cost covariations are changed significantly in the sensitivity analysis.

A primeira reação nuclear em cadeia autosustentada controlada foi obtida em 2 de dezembro de 1942. Daí em diante, o crescimento da energia nuclear, inicialmente estimulado por fins militares, foi rápido. Ás aplicações civis no setor da geração de eletricidade foram adquirindo, ao longo do tempo, um papel sempre mais importante nas matrizes energéticas de muitos paises. Em 1987, 418 reatores nucleares no mundo estavam produzindo eletricidade em escala comercial. Dois terços destes reatores eram localizados em 7 países: Estados Unidos, União Soviética, França, Reino Unido, Alemanha, Canadá e Japão. Nos anos 90, o setor nuclear experimentou um grande retardo, devido principalmente ao acidente de Chernobyl e a uma revisão otimista das perspectivas de esgotamento das reservas de petróleo e dos outros combustíveis fosseis. Em 2005 o número de reatores para geração de eletricidade em operação no mundo era de 441, não muito diferente do numero de reatores em operação em 1987. Neste panorama o primeiro objetivo deste trabalho é analisar o estado da arte da geração núcleo elétrica e do ciclo do combustível nos países acima mencionados, partindo de uma revisão histórica. O caso do Brasil é abordado também por ser o país onde este trabalho é desenvolvido. Uma vez concluído o quadro da geração núcleo elétrica a nível internacional, são analisadas as novas tecnologias no setor da geração núcleo elétrica e as tendências e as iniciativas para o futuro da utilização da energia nuclear. São também abordadas as principais questões que sempre acompanharam o debate sobre a energia nuclear: a segurança, o meio ambiente, a proliferação e o mais moderno conceito de desenvolvimento sustentável. É importante antecipar que o objetivo deste trabalho não é de julgar os acontecimentos e de influenciar a opinião do leitor a favor da energia nuclear, mas de selecionar materiais e dados para informar e assim fornecendo um texto que seja uma coleção de informações e sugestões de aprofundamentos e não uma fonte de polêmicas. / On December 2, 1942, man first initiated a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction, and controlled it. Since then, nuclear energy development, firstly estimulated by military goals, was fast. But nuclear energy use for electricity production grew too, until becoming a very important energy source in the world energy mix. In 1987 there were in the world 418 nuclear reactors capable of producing commercially useful supplies of electricity. Over two thirds were in just seven countries: United States, Soviet Union, France, United Kingdom, Germany, Canada and Japan. In the 90s, nuclear energy development slowed down as a consequence of the Chernobyl accident and of the more optimistic evaluations of world oil resources. In 2005 the number of nuclear reactors commercially producing electricity amounted to 441, not much more than the 418 reactors operating in 1987. From this point of view, the primary scope of this work is to analyze the world pattern and the state of the art of nuclear power production focusing on the countries above mentioned. Brazil case is analyzed too, since this work has been developed there. Once this international outlook is concluded, the next step passes through the analyses of new technologies, tendencies and initiatives for the future development of nuclear energy. Since feelings run high in the debate about nuclear energy, some fundamental and fervent points are raised: security, environment, proliferation and sustainable development. Nevertheless, it is important to point out that effort has been made in this work not to take sides, but to be impartial in selecting materials and giving data. The scope is not to convert the reader to a pro-nuclear view but to inform and, in doing so, to provide a volume that is a textbook and not a piece of polemic.