Le système Tat (pour Twin Arginine Translocation) exporte des protéines repliées depuis le cytoplasme vers le périplasme des bactéries. L'adressage des protéines à exporter au système Tat repose sur une séquence signal spécifique amino terminale clivée après exportation. Chez le phytopathogène Dickeya dadantii, l'homologue de pectine lyase PnlH possède une séquence signal Tat qui assure son adressage au système Tat mais qui n'est pas clivée après exportation et ancre la protéine dans la membrane externe. Chez les protéobactéries, la majorité des protéines de membrane externe sont soit des lipoprotéines soit des protéines intégrales de membrane en tonneau β. L'adressage de ces protéines à la membrane externe repose sur des voies spécifiques du type de protéine : la voie Lol pour les lipoprotéines et la combinaison des chaperons périplasmiques SurA, Skp et DegP et du complexe de membrane externe Bam (β barrel assembly machinery) pour les protéines en tonneau β. Au cours de ce travail, l'étude de l'adressage de PnlH à la membrane externe a montré que SurA se liait à la séquence signal hydrophobe de PnlH pour la protéger de l'environnement hydrophile au cours de son transit dans le périplasme. La séquence signal de PnlH (41 acides aminés) porte l'intégralité de l'information nécessaire à son adressage à la membrane externe. La nature de l'information adressant les protéines au système Tat est bien connue et dans ce travail nous nous sommes efforcés d'identifier les informations requises pour les deux dernières étapes de l'adressage de PnlH à la membrane externe : la traversée du périplasme et l'insertion dans la membrane externe. La délétion d'une région conservée comprise entre les résidus 28 et 41 de la séquence signal de PnlH affecte l'adressage de cette dernière à la membrane externe. Des substitutions des acides aminés conservés de cette région ne semblent pas affecter l'adressage de PnlH, indiquant que l'information nécessaire à l'adressage de PnlH à la membrane externe après exportation ne réside pas dans la séquence en acides aminés de la séquence signal de PnlH. En revanche, nos données suggèrent que la présence d'une hélice α hydrophobe dans la séquence signal de PnlH est importante pour son adressage à la membrane externe. Cette observation est particulièrement intéressante puisqu'une telle structure est généralement considérée comme une caractéristique des protéines de membrane interne.

Le système Tat (pour Twin Arginine Translocation) exporte des protéines repliées depuis le cytoplasme vers le périplasme des bactéries. L’adressage des protéines à exporter au système Tat repose sur une séquence signal spécifique amino terminale clivée après exportation. Chez le phytopathogène Dickeya dadantii, l’homologue de pectine lyase PnlH possède une séquence signal Tat qui assure son adressage au système Tat mais qui n’est pas clivée après exportation et ancre la protéine dans la membrane externe. Chez les protéobactéries, la majorité des protéines de membrane externe sont soit des lipoprotéines soit des protéines intégrales de membrane en tonneau β. L’adressage de ces protéines à la membrane externe repose sur des voies spécifiques du type de protéine : la voie Lol pour les lipoprotéines et la combinaison des chaperons périplasmiques SurA, Skp et DegP et du complexe de membrane externe Bam (β barrel assembly machinery) pour les protéines en tonneau β. Au cours de ce travail, l’étude de l’adressage de PnlH à la membrane externe a montré que SurA se liait à la séquence signal hydrophobe de PnlH pour la protéger de l’environnement hydrophile au cours de son transit dans le périplasme. La séquence signal de PnlH (41 acides aminés) porte l’intégralité de l’information nécessaire à son adressage à la membrane externe. La nature de l’information adressant les protéines au système Tat est bien connue et dans ce travail nous nous sommes efforcés d’identifier les informations requises pour les deux dernières étapes de l’adressage de PnlH à la membrane externe : la traversée du périplasme et l’insertion dans la membrane externe. La délétion d’une région conservée comprise entre les résidus 28 et 41 de la séquence signal de PnlH affecte l’adressage de cette dernière à la membrane externe. Des substitutions des acides aminés conservés de cette région ne semblent pas affecter l’adressage de PnlH, indiquant que l’information nécessaire à l’adressage de PnlH à la membrane externe après exportation ne réside pas dans la séquence en acides aminés de la séquence signal de PnlH. En revanche, nos données suggèrent que la présence d’une hélice α hydrophobe dans la séquence signal de PnlH est importante pour son adressage à la membrane externe. Cette observation est particulièrement intéressante puisqu’une telle structure est généralement considérée comme une caractéristique des protéines de membrane interne. / The Twin Arginine Translocation (Tat) pathway exports folded proteins from the cytoplasm to the periplasm of bacteria. The targeting of the exported proteins to the Tat pathway relies on a specific amino-terminal signal sequence, which is cleaved after exportation. In the phytopathogen Dickeya dadantii the pectin lyase homologue PnlH is exported by the Tat pathway without cleavage of its signal sequence, which anchors PnlH into the outer membrane. In proteobacteria, the vast majority of outer membrane proteins consists of β-barrel proteins and lipoproteins. Targeting of these proteins to the outer membrane relies on two pathways: the periplasmic chaperones SurA, Skp and DegP work together with the β-Barrel-Assembly Machinery (Bam) to target and insert β-barrel proteins into the outer membrane while the Lol pathway targets and insert lipoproteins. In this work, we showed that SurA binds to the hydrophobic PnlH signal sequence during the course of its periplasmic transit. The PnlH signal sequence (41 residues) carries all the information necessary to the targeting of PnlH to the outer membrane. The nature of the information that targets proteins to the Tat system is well charcterized. Thus, we focused on the nature of the information carried by the PnlH signal sequence and that allows its crossing of the periplasm and its insertion in the outer membrane. The deletion of a conserved region of the PnlH signal sequence between residues 28 and 41 strongly affects the targeting of PnlH to the outer membrane. None of the single amino acid substitutions constructed in this region obviously affected the targeting of PnlH, indicating that the information may not reside in the amino acid sequence of the PnlH signal sequence. Consistently, our data suggest that the presence in the PnlH signal sequence of an α helix with a hydrophobic cluster is important for the targeting of PnlH to the outer membrane. This observation is striking since such a structure is considered as an inner membrane protein property.

A oxidação de membranas lipídicas pode ser benéfica (p.ex. sinalização celular) ou prejudicial, sendo a permeabilização de membranas uma de suas consequências citotóxicas. A permeabilização fotoinduzida de membranas é parte essencial do mecanismo da terapia fotodinâmica (PDT), uma modalidade clínica em que fotossensibilizadores, luz e oxigênio são combinados para oxidar biomoléculas e consequentemente danificar células indesejadas. Neste trabalho, buscamos entender molecularmente quais fatores levam à permeabilização fotoinduzida de membranas. Enfatizamos os papéis do oxigênio, do status da membrana e de reações específicas do fotossensibilizador em contato com a membrana. Simulações de dinâmica molecular foram usadas para obter a distribuição de oxigênio em membranas em função da temperatura nas fases fluida ou gel. Procedimentos específicos de análise de cinéticas de luminescência de oxigênio singlete foram desenvolvidos para calcular tempos de vida de estado excitado triplete compatíveis com as variações da distribuição de oxigênio em membranas. Caracterizamos um derivado fluorogênico do α-tocoferol como uma sonda para oxigênio singlete em experimentos com lipossomos, possibilitando comparar qualitativamente os níveis de oxigênio singlete atingindo a membrana quando produzido por fotossensibilizadores hidrossolúveis ou lipossolúveis. Experimentos em vesículas unilamelares gigantes (GUVs) nos permitiram comparar a ativação da sonda com o aumento de área superficial da membrana, e estimar a constante de velocidade da reação do oxigênio singlete com lipídeos insaturados como 6 x 104 M-1 s-1. Estreitando nosso foco para a permeabilização fotoinduzida de membranas, inicialmente caracterizamos quatro fotossensibilizadores fenotiazínicos em relação a suas interações com membranas e suas capacidades de promover o vazamento de uma sonda fluorescente. Fotossensibilizadores que se particionaram mais em membranas (e não os geradores de oxigênio singlete mais eficientes) danificaram a membrana de lipossomos mais eficientemente. A ligação à membrana também afetou as vias de decaimento dos estados excitados triplete. Com esse estudo, selecionamos o fotossensibilizador hidrofílico azul de metileno (MB) e o fotossensibilizador mais hidrofóbico DO15 para as investigações subsequentes. Os efeitos de ambos os fotossensibilizadores em GUVs foram caracterizados e observamos que as cinéticas de permeabilização indicaram diferentes taxas de produção de lipídeos formadores de poros para MB e DO15, o que deve depender de interações específicas com a membrana. Para melhor compreender o papel de interações fotossensibilizador/membrana, caracterizamos a oxidação de lipídeos por ambos os fotossensibilizadores, em uma condição em que DO15 permeabilizava membranas 70 vezes mais eficientemente que MB. Observamos principalmente a formação de hidroperóxidos lipídicos para MB, enquanto que para DO15, além desses mesmos produtos, observamos a formação de álcoois, cetonas e aldeídos fosfolipídicos de cadeia truncada, esses últimos tendo sido relacionados a condições em que se observou a permeabilização de membranas. Embora já fosse sabido que aldeídos fosfolipídicos aumentam a permeabilidade da membrana, esse fenômeno nunca havia sido demonstrado para a formação de aldeídos in situ. A fotooxidação lipídica foi acompanhada por aumento do fotobranqueamento de DO15 e pela formação de radicais lipídicos oxigenados, indicando a ocorrência de reações diretas entre lipídeos e fotossensibilizadores. O mapeamento dos fatores que levam à permeabilização fotoinduzida em membranas, focando em reações e interações moleculares, é o maior produto desse trabalho / Oxidation of lipid membranes can be beneficial (e.g., cell signaling) or detrimental, with membrane permeabilization representing one of its cytotoxic outcomes. Photoinduced membrane permeabilization is key to the mechanism of photodynamic therapy (PDT), a clinical modality in which photosensitizers, light and oxygen are combined to oxidize biomolecules and consequently damage diseased cells. In this work, we aimed to understand at the molecular level which factors lead to photoinduced membrane permeabilization. We emphasized the roles of oxygen, membrane status and specific reactions of the photosensitizer in contact with the membrane. Molecular dynamics simulations were used to assess oxygen distribution in membranes as a function of temperature within membranes in gel or liquid phases. Special fitting procedures of singlet oxygen luminescence kinetics were devised to allow the calculation of triplet excited state lifetimes compatible with variable oxygen distributions in membranes. We characterized a fluorogenic α-tocopherol probe as a singlet oxygen trapping molecule in experiments with liposomes, and were able to qualitatively compare the amount of singlet oxygen molecules reaching the membrane after being generated by water soluble or membrane bound photosensitizers. Experiments performed in giant unilamellar vesicles (GUVs) allowed us to compare the activation of the probe with the observed membrane surface area increase and estimate the reaction rate of singlet oxygen with unsaturated lipids to be 6 x 104 M-1 s-1. We then narrowed our focus to photoinduced membrane permeabilization, initially characterizing four phenothiazinium photosensitizers with respect to their interactions with membranes and their capability to promote leakage of a fluorescent probe. Photosensitizers that bound to membranes to a larger extent (and not the most efficient singlet oxygen generators) were the most efficient ones to damage liposomal membranes. Membrane binding also affected triplet excited state deactivation pathways. From this study, we selected the hydrophilic photosensitizer methylene blue (MB) and the more hydrophobic photosensitizer DO15 for subsequent investigations. We characterized the effects of both photosensitizers in GUVs and observed that the kinetics of membrane permeabilization implied different rates of generation of pore-forming lipids for MB and DO15, which should depend on specific interactions with membranes. To further understand the role of photosensitizer/membrane interactions, we characterized the oxidized lipids formed by both photosensitizers in a condition in which the membrane permeabilization efficiency of DO15 was 70 times higher than that of MB. We observed mainly formation of lipid hydroperoxides by MB, while DO15 not only led to these same products, but also to alcohols, ketones and phospholipid truncated aldehydes, the latter being related to conditions in which membrane permeabilization was observed. Although aldehydes were already known to increase membrane permeability, this phenomenon had never before been demonstrated for aldehyde formation in situ. Lipid photooxidation was accompanied by increased photobleaching of DO15 and by formation of lipid oxygenated radicals, indicating the occurrence of direct reactions between lipids and photosensitizers. A roadmap of the factors leading to photoinduced membrane permeabilization focusing on molecular interactions and reactions is the major achievement of this work.