Heeding the call by Firth and Wagner (1997) for a re-analysis of some of the “facts” of modern second language (L2) learning theory and research, the goals of this present study are to determine if: (1) informal conversations between a NS of English (NES) learning Spanish and a NS of Spanish (NSS) learning English reveal insight regarding the natural use and interaction of the first (L1) and the target language (TL); (2) informal L2 conversations in which the L1 is permitted present opportunities for L2 teaching, learning or socialization; and (3) provided that evidence of possible opportunities for L2 teaching, learning or socialization is found, does this indicate a need for permitting both informal talk and the use of the L1 in the L2 learning context. It was hypothesized that in informal conversations, learners would demonstrate intuitive approaches to L2 learning, teaching and socialization, and that observations of these phenomena could help guide research and pedagogy regarding the L2 learning context. It was also hypothesized that informal language exchanges would demonstrate that when left to intuition, participants would provide quality NS input and modified NNS output for their partners as they alternated between L1 and L2 and between the roles of language teacher and language learner. Previous studies have shown that the ability to control the language being used and the topic being discussed allows learners to access knowledge and linguistic structures that enable them to feel more comfortable using the L2 and less anxious about interacting in L2 conversations (Auerbach 1993; Tomlinson 2001; Lantolf and Thorne 2007). The design of this study was intended to address the concept of bi-directional informal discourse in learner/expert learner/expert pairs (i.e., participants who are each learners of their partners’ L1) and the informal exchange of two languages in the L2 learning context. Although the importance of language learning and use in context have been described since the early 20th century in the work of Vygotsky, and the phenomenon of participant orientation and role-switching has also been examined in recent years, there have been relatively few studies that have looked at the nexus of social talk and reciprocal teaching by pairs of learner/experts as this context interacts with the use of the L1 and the L2 in an informal communication event. Data for the study were obtained from audio recordings of four conversations between pairs of native Spanish speakers learning English and native English speakers learning Spanish with the goal of determining what the participants would teach to one other through the use of informal, unstructured conversation using both the L1 & the L2. In addition, all of the participants completed an exit interview questionnaire on their experience with the interaction as well as their general opinions regarding language learning. The data showed that 7 out of 8 participants did teach (intentionally or unintentionally) both linguistic and extra-linguistic information from their L1 to their partners, and that in all pairs a local set of rules regarding the use of the L1was established (including the pair in which no English was used). The pairs modeled an intuitive use of the L1 demonstrating the ability of the L1 both to bridge conversational gaps and to enable teaching and socialization in the L2. The data also show how the participants built a community of practice by setting and changing the language used, requesting explicit feedback or evaluation from their partners, bonding over language learning struggles, as well the linguistic and extra-linguistic information that the participants provided for their partners. The results of the study indicate potential benefits both for the use of the L1 in the L2 learning context, and for allowing learners to teach from their own L1 while learning the L2 in informal conversations. However, the recordings and the exit interviews also show some potential problems for implementation (e.g., the possibility that a conversation may be carried out in just one language). The conclusions present implications and applications for the study, such as the establishment of language exchange programs as a supplement to traditional L2 classes, as well as the limitations of the study and suggestions for further research. / text

The purpose of this qualitative, ethnographic case study was to learn the nature of the discursive practices of English learners in playground peer cultures. Additionally, it sought to understand the relationship between these practices and ideology, gender, and school performance. Three questions guided this study: (1) what is the nature of the actual discursive practices of English learners in peer culture, playground interactions? (2) how do gender and ideology play a role in children's games? and (3) what is the relationship between these discursive practices and school performance?This inquiry was conducted over ten months at a school in Northern California where four English learner second graders were observed playing each day during their lunchtime recess. Data sources included audio and video taped observations and field notes, audio taped interviews, and artifact collection. Data analysis was ongoing, characterized by member-checking, peer review, and multiple codings.The findings of this study reflected the dynamic, sophisticated nature of discursive practices which were co-constructed in peer culture settings. These practices included the exploration and explanation of new games, uses of imitative and counter-imitative behaviors, performed rule talk, integrated displays of gesture, pitch and silences, and code-switching strategies. Students employed these for a variety of purposes, including the facilitation of alignment within groups, the manipulation of social organization, the orchestration of inclusion or exclusion, and the creation of positions of power.This research also proposed a working model within which the playground became a site for the interpretive reproduction of ideologies. Students at Westside demonstrated that they had appropriated adult ideologies in creative ways. They negotiated these in their peer cultures, and preserved and transformed adult culture.Finally, this study revealed that, based on the discursive practices observed on the playground, proficiency levels and instructional goals, as determined by the California English Language Development Test (CELDT) and the state English Language Development (ELD) standards were inaccurate and underestimated student ability. Policy reform reflecting greater awareness, both of the social nature of discourse, as well as the power of peer cultures, was recommended.

This study aimed to investigate the role of time constraint on second language reading comprehension via the recruiting of 47 Saudi participants who were learning English as a second language. Subjects shared similar level of English proficiency; all participants were in their third semester of English at Aljouf University, Saudi Arabia, at the time of data collection. Participants were divided into three time groups; limited (20 minutes), extended (30 minutes), and unlimited (40 minutes). In terms of stimuli, a reading text was adapted from a standard English proficiency exam, TOEFL. The text consisted of 699 words and was of moderate level in difficulty, calculated as between 8th and 9th grade for native English speakers; passive structures comprised 6% of the text. Questions were also divided into three groups to elaborate the effect of time constraint on each type of questions. The particulars of the study were as follows. Firstly, this study analyzed effect of time constraint on the overall performance on the TOEFL reading passage. Then, effect of time on the three groups, including vocabulary-based questions, literal comprehension questions, and higher order inferential questions. Results revealed that time constraint tends to be an affective factor in reading. In the overall comparison among the 3 different time groups, the unlimited time group showed the highest performance on the reading comprehension task. ii In view of the categories of questions, no significant difference was found on the vocabulary-based questions between time condition groups. The overall low vocabulary scores across groups and the lack of significant effect for time constraint suggest that extended time does not compensate for poor vocabulary knowledge. On the other hand, the unlimited time group demonstrated the best performance relative to the other two groups on the literal comprehension and higher order questions. Of all three categories, the higher-order questions were the most difficult for all three time constraint groups. Overall, the results of this study show that time given to the reading task significantly affects overall reading comprehension scores, but they also suggest that this effect varies in relation to the types of questions.

Thesis advisor: Vincent Cho / Demographic shifts in American society and public schools have increased the urgency among educators and other stakeholders to ensure educational equity and excellence are a reality for all students (Brown, 2007; Dean, 2002; Gay, 2000; Johnson, 2007). One very notable shift in the United States has been the dramatic enrollment increase of English Learner (EL) students. Supporting ELs’ achievement on standardized testing and increasing their graduation rates have been particular challenges, the meeting of which has required school districts to think differently. Culturally responsive school leadership (CRSL) has been one solution, through the application of which districts can focus on teacher preparation, culturally responsive curricula, school inclusiveness and the engagement of students and parents in community contexts. This study is part of a larger study that examined leadership practices that foster equity, included twenty semi-structured interviews of district leaders, school leaders, and teachers. Findings from this study indicate that school leaders have enacted and supported culturally responsive behaviors to educate ELs and suggest how leaders might employ CRSL behaviors for the dual purpose of supporting ELs’ achievement on standardized testing and increasing their graduation rates. / Thesis (EdD) — Boston College, 2020. / Submitted to: Boston College. Lynch School of Education. / Discipline: Educational Leadership and Higher Education.

English language learners (ELLs) are the fastest growing student group in U.S. public schools. ELLs also consistently lag behind their native-English speaking peers in academic achievement. These facts set the stage for the study that evaluated one school district’s program to prepare their teachers to effectively educate ELLs. This program included a year-long series of six professional development courses that covered ELL-specific topics. The study’s evaluation tools included an online survey completed by teachers who took the courses, teachers’ feedback on course evaluation forms, interviews of district-level officials familiar with the program, and an examination of the homework assignments from each course. The program evaluation showed that teachers and district officials thought the courses helped prepare the teachers to instruct ELLs. However, the teachers’ feedback about the program’s influence included some specific references to teaching ELLs, but more examples from general education settings. The evaluation also found that only about 10% of the homework assignments required direct instruction of students. These evaluation results suggest that the program could be strengthened to include more opportunities for teachers to practice instructing ELLs. This additional practice could increase teachers’ confidence to serve the needs of ELLs in their classrooms.

Morphological awareness (MA) is the knowledge of word structure and capacity to manipulate the meaningful parts of words (Kuo & Anderson, 2006). This study examined derivational MA in the English reading processes of 85 linguistically diverse middle school students in grades six through eight. 56 participants had a native/home language (L1) of Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Haitian Creole, or Cape Verdean Creole (CVC) and were acquiring English as a second language (L2). 29 participants were L1 English speakers, which facilitated comparisons between L1 and L2 English readers in how three predictors—MA, word reading, and vocabulary knowledge—related to English reading comprehension. Tests were administered in English to assess word reading, reading comprehension, MA, reading vocabulary, and silent word reading fluency for all 85 participants. The study a.) Explored the unique contribution of English MA to English reading comprehension; b.) Examined this relationship in light of English word reading and English vocabulary knowledge; c.) Compared linear regression models to examine which factor (or combination of these factors) explained the most variation in English reading comprehension; d.) Looked at differences in the relationships between the reading variables for L2 English readers, based on L1 background; and e.) Explored L1 background as a possible moderator between MA and L2 English reading comprehension; and e.) Observed potential differences in these relationships between L1 and L2 English readers. All four measures correlated with L2 English reading comprehension for the combined group of L2 English readers, yet MA showed the strongest association. MA was also found to predict L2 English reading comprehension—as did word reading and vocabulary knowledge—when controlling for grade/ time of testing, district, and socio-economic status (SES). Using the same control variables, the bivariate model of MA and English word reading was equal in strength to the model combining MA, word reading, and vocabulary knowledge to predict L2 reading comprehension. Vocabulary knowledge did not add significant predictive value. Differences by L1 background were seen in correlations and in various regression models predicting L2 English reading comprehension. Controlling for grade/time of testing, district, and SES, MA alone created the best model to explain variance in L2 reading comprehension for Chinese speakers. For Portuguese speakers—using the same controls—the combination of MA, word reading, and vocabulary created the best predictive model for L2 English reading comprehension. The bivariate model of vocabulary and MA and the combined model with all three variables equally predicted English reading comprehension for Spanish speakers. No models effectively predicted English reading comprehension for Haitian Creole speakers. The model combining all three predictors explained the most variance in L2 reading comprehension. Additionally, L1 did not moderate the relationship of MA to L2 English reading comprehension. For L1 speakers of English, MA uniquely predicted English reading comprehension—as did word reading, and vocabulary—when controlling for grade/time of testing, district, and SES. However, the best predictor of L1 English reading comprehension was the combined contribution of MA, word reading, and vocabulary knowledge. L1 and L2 English readers differed in the correlations between variables and in how well the various regression models explained variance in English reading comprehension. The controls of grade/time of testing and SES were significant as predictors in models of L1 English reading comprehension. Z- tests did not reveal significant differences when comparing the correlation coefficients of independent variables in the regression models. Implications for instruction and future research are presented.

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A thematic unit on immigration and migration in the United States provided a useful scaffold for engaging all students, including elementary English learners, in academic language learning.

This panel presents a re-conceptualized framework regarding making inquiry in English/language arts classrooms possible for English Learners (ELs): (1) authentic assessment that recognizes ELs’ cultural, linguistic capital; (2) tailored instruction that focuses on integration of drawing, discussion, and intentional use of various text types; and (3) pedagogical praxis, a critical element to bring about instructional change.