The following work was conducted at the Agricultural Experimental Center under the title of : Apparent digestibility in llamas feed with stipa ichu (Peruvian feather grass) treated with urea and molasses, for which 3 assays were performed in reference to the study : 1) percentage of assimilation of the treated and non- treated grass, 2) apparent digestibility of fiber and protein after and before feeding, and 3) determine the adequate levels of urea and molasses for the chemical treatment of the grass (Stipa ichu). For the first assay, the greater consumption was obtained at the level of 3 (3% of urea) reporting a consumption index of 1895.67 gr, the least amount of consumption was found to be 0(0% of urea) reporting a consumption index of 1450.93 gr. The administered food prepared with (grass + urea + molasses) at the different levels of 3%, 2%, and 4%, we had a variability coefficient of 12.56%. The highest index of water consumption was obtain with the 0% untreated grass with a volume of 882.12 ml, and the least was found at level 2 (2%) with a volume of 335.71 ml, with an average of 424.27 ml/day with a variability coefficient of 77.02%. The amount of excreted feces were found to be produced in a greater amount when fed with grass with at 3 (3%) type of treatment with a total of 1059.8 gr, and the least amount of excretions was shown when fed with treatment 4 (4%) with 60.8 gr, with an average of 826.51 gr/day with a variability of 22.35%. For the second assay, we found that the apparent digestibility of fiber at the 3 different levels of treatment , the greater percentage of fiber assimilated by the organism was with those that received food at level 3 (3%) with a 76.78%, and the least with a 0 (0%) in relationship to the other treatments. The greater percentage of protein was obtained at level 4 (4%) with 49.48%, decreasing the protein level 2%, 3%, and 0%, we can say that the difference is due to the different levels of urea found in the treatments. For the third assay, the most consumed was level 3 (3%) of urea with an average of 94.83%, the second one is level 2 (2%) with an average of 85.71%, followed by level 4(4%) with 74.59%. We concluded that 2.6% of urea is acceptable for the supplementation of stipa ichu (Bolivian feather grass) for the feeding of llamas.

No description available.

It is appreciated that improvements in feed form (FF) result in improved broiler performance. However, research has primarily focused on the finishing growth phase due to associated high feed consumption allowing the greatest opportunity to observe performance benefits. Due to lower feed volumes required in the starter growth phase, it may be more economical to improve FF in the starter phase if improvements in overall performance and processing characteristics are observed. Study 1 investigated the potential for interactive effects of high or low FF presented in each of three growth phases to influence broiler performance. These data demonstrated the potential for FF presented in the starter phase to interact with FF in the finisher phase influencing day (d) 46 ending body weight (BW). Due to starter FF impacting overall performance, this led to Study 2 which consisted of two experiments with the main objective of determining the optimal crumble particle size for improved starter (d 0-14) performance. Experiment 1 utilized 5 different crumble particle sizes ranging from 1202- 2172 µm; whereas Experiment 2 implemented 8 differing crumble particle sizes ranging from 1174- 3736 µm. These data demonstrated consistent improvements in feed conversion ratio (FCR) as crumble particle size increased, with improvements in BW gain being demonstrated in Experiment 2 for crumbles 2800 µm and larger. Due to associated performance benefits with large particle sizes, Study 3 examined the potential to feed pellets, in comparison to crumbles, at different qualities during the starter period. Additionally, two commonly used genetic strains were employed to determine if performance benefits due to FF and feed quality (FQ) would be similar among different strains. Lastly, common diets were fed following the starter phase to determine if benefits due to starter FF would translate to improved overall performance. Feed quality and FF interacted to influence d 18 BW and d 0-18 BW gain. Examining carryover effects, d 0-32 and 0-46 FCR were influenced by FF and FQ; whereas d 0-62 was not influenced. These data suggest that length of the growout should be considered for determining FQ and FF to present in the starter growth phase.

An activated sludge system that incorporates a sidestream anaerobic bioreactor, called the Cannibal process, was the focus of this study. A prior study of this process (Novak et al., 2007) found that this system generated about 60% less solids than conventional activated sludge without any negative effects on the effluent quality. Although that study showed substantial solids reduction, questions remain concerning the specific mechanism(s) that account for the solids loss. In this study, the mechanisms that account for the loss of biological solids was the focus of the investigation. The first part of this study was conducted to evaluate those effects in terms of the role of iron in the influent wastewater and feeding patterns on the performance of the Cannibal system. It was found that the Cannibal system with high iron in the influent produced less biological solids than the system receiving low iron. The data also showed that the Cannibal system operated under fast feed (high substrate pressure) produced much less solids than the system with slow feed (low substrate pressure). The high substrate pressure was achieved by feeding the influent wastewater to the Cannibal system over a short time period so that the substrate concentration would initially peak and then decline as degradation occurred. This is called "fast feed." For low substrate pressure, the influent was added slowly so the substrate concentration remained low at all times. This is called "slow feed." Later, an attempt to increase substrate pressure in the slow feed Cannibal system was conducted by either manipulating the aeration patterns or adding a small reactor in front of the main reactor (selector). It was found that either interrupting aeration in the aerobic reactor or providing a small aerobic reactor in front of the main reactor resulted in an increase in solids reduction. The second part of this study was to investigate the mechanisms of floc destruction in the fast and the slow feed Cannnibal systems. It was found that higher accumulation of biopolymers (proteins and polysaccharides) occurred in the fast feed system and this was associated with a greater solids reduction in the fast than the slow feed system. In addition, more protein hydrolysis and more Fe(III)-reducing microorganism activity in the fast feed environment were found to be factors in higher solids reduction. The last part of this study was to investigate the structure of the Cannibal sludge flocs generated under the fast and the slow feed conditions. It was found that the readily biodegradable (1 kDa.) protein is larger in the flocs from the fast feed than the slow feed Cannibal system. This resulted in higher floc destruction in the fast feed condition. / Ph. D.

The flux of free and peptide amino acids across the stomach and intestinal tissues was quantified using sheep and calves maintained in "steady state” conditions by feeding at hourly intervals. Crossbred wethers and Holstein steers were surgically cannulated in the abdominal aorta, mesenteric vein and portal vein. All animals were fed an orchardgrass, corn, SBM-based diet. The steers received three abomasal infusions; a control solution, and an amino acid mixture simulating casein and casein each at a rate equivalent to 25% of daily crude protein intake. Nutrient fluxes from the mesenteric and portal-drained viscera were measured; non-mesenteric flux was calculated as the difference between portal flux and mesenteric flux. Results of this study support the concept that free amino acids are absorbed by the small intestine and not by the stomach. The flux of peptide amino acids across the portal-drained-viscera indicate that a major portion of the amino acids which are absorbed by cattle and sheep are absorbed in the form of peptides from the stomach. The observation that large quantities of peptide amino acids are absorbed from the stomach is unique and it is expected that this most important discovery will revolutionize the feeding of ruminants. / Ph. D.

Experiments were conducted to investigate the fermentation characteristics and nutritional value of mixtures containing different proportions of alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) straw ensiled with and without molasses, microbial inoculant and molasses + microbial inoculant. In experiment 1, chopped alfalfa harvested at 1/10 bloom and chopped wheat straw were ensiled in the following proportions (DM basis): 0:100, 25:75, 50:50, 75:25, 100:0, 0:100 (urea-treated), with O and 5% dry molasses, and 0 and .1% microbial inoculant (Lactobaci]lus plantarum and Streptococcus faecium) in a 6 x 2 x 2 completely randomized design with a factorial arrangement. Each mixture was ensiled in 3.8-liter cardboard containers double lined with polyethylene. The pH values for the ensiled mixtures of 0:100, 25:75, 50:50, 75:25 and 100:0 alfalfa:straw without additives were 4.70, 4.76, 4.65, 4.76 and 4.82, respectively. Urea treatment of the 0:100 mixture (wheat straw) increased (P < .01) pH to 8.84. Overall lower pH (P < .01) occurred when molasses was added, compared to untreated and inoculated silages. Lactic acid concentration decreased (P < .01) linearly with decreased level of alfalfa, over all additives. Molasses increased (P < .01) lactic acid concentration. Overall, water soluble carbohydrates (WSC) in pre-ensiled mixtures increased (P < .01) linearly with increases in alfalfa. The WSC decreased (P < .01) after ensiling. Microbial inoculant did not affect pH or lactic acid content in the silages. In vitro dry matter digestibility (IVDMD) increased (P < .01) linearly with level of alfalfa, and molasses increased (P < .01) IVDMD. In experiment 2, chopped alfalfa (1/10 bloom, third cutting) and wheat straw were ensiled in the following respective proportions (DM basis): 0:100, 25:75, 50:50, 75:25, 100:0, 100:0 + 5% dry molasses, and 0:100 (urea-treated) in 210-liter metal drums double lined with .08 mm polyethylene bags. Increased proportions of wheat straw to alfalfa increased (P < .01) DM content and lactic acid concentration, and decreased pH and total VFA content. The CP, Ca, P, Mg and K contents decreased (P < .01) with increases in wheat straw. Addition of molasses to alfalfa increased (P < .01) WSC and lactic acid, and decreased (P < .01) pH and total VFA. Urea treatment of wheat straw increased (P < .01) pH and acetic acid, and decreased (P < .01) lactic acid, compared to untreated wheat straw. The NDF (P < .05) and hemicellulose (P < .01) were decreased with urea treatment. Two metabolism trials were conducted, each with 21 crossbred wethers. The diets were alfalfa and wheat straw silages made in 210-liter metal drums described above. Wheat straw ensiled alone was supplemented with soybean meal because of insufficient consumption when the straw was fed alone. Linear increases (P < .01) in DM, OM, and CP digestibilities were observed with increased level of alfalfa. Adding molasses increased (P < .05) DM digestibility. A linear increase (P < .01) in N retention was observed with increasing alfalfa level. Ruminal NH₃-N and blood urea-N increased (P < .01) with increased proportion of alfalfa. Feeding urea-treated straw increased (P < .01) ruminal NH₃-N and blood urea-N, compared to untreated wheat straw. A palatability trial was conducted with 42 sheep fed the same diets as in the metabolism trials. Daily DM intake increased linearly (P < .01) with increased proportion of alfalfa. It is concluded that ensiling cereal crop residues with leguminous forage has potential in improving fermentation characteristics and nutritional value of alfalfa silage and improving the nutritional value and utilization of cereal crop residues. / Ph. D.

The theoretical part of the thesis entitled "Accuracy of loading into a hanging horizontal feed wagon" deals with the historical development of feed administration of cattle and currently used trends in feeding. The diploma part also describes the basic technology of production of bulky and fodder fodder, there is also a modern technology for their distribution, characteristics and the way of loading individual components of the ration, which also includes the evaluation of loading of individual components. The thesis also deals with the choice of mixing feed wagon. The practical part is focused on the evaluation of loading accuracy into the hanging horizontal feed wagon.

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar os efeitos da idade de matriz, composição e forma física da dieta pré-inicial (fornecida à base de 200 g por ave) na performance de frangos de corte machos até os 42 dias de idade. Os tratamentos consistiram das combinações de 2 tipos de ração pré-inicial: formuladas com ingredientes de origem vegetal (milho, farelo de soja e soja integral) ou com subprodutos de origem animal (farinha de carne e ossos, farinha de sangue); 2 formas físicas: farelada ou desintegrada e 2 idades de matrizes: jovem (32 semanas) ou adulta (55 semanas), num arranjo fatorial 2x2x2. O experimento foi realizado com 4 repetições de 45 aves, em blocos casualizados. Seguindo-se os tratamentos dietéticos na fase pré-inicial, todas as aves passaram a receber uma ração comum nas fases inicial, crescimento e final. A ração desintegrada no período pré-inicial resultou em maior peso vivo, ganho de peso, consumo de ração e conversão alimentar aos 7 dias de idade em comparação à ração farelada. A inclusão de ingredientes de origem animal nas dietas pré-iniciais resultou em um decréscimo de peso vivo e ganho de peso aos 7 dias de idade, mas não afetou o consumo de ração e a conversão alimentar. Pintos provenientes de matrizes adultas apresentaram maior peso vivo, ganho de peso e consumo de ração quando comparados àqueles provenientes de matrizes jovens na primeira semana de vida, mas a conversão alimentar não foi afetada. A viabilidade dos pintos na primeira semana não foi afetada por nenhum fator. Na primeira semana não foi observada nenhuma interação significativa entre os fatores para as variáveis. A vantagem da dieta desintegrada durante a primeira semana foi evidente para peso vivo e ganho de peso até os 42 dias de idade e a interação entre forma física e idade da matriz indicou uma vantagem para os frangos provenientes de matrizes jovens (143g) em relação àqueles provenientes de matrizes adultas (64g) quando a ração desintegrada foi fornecida. A conversão alimentar aos 42 dias de idade foi melhor quando a dieta desintegrada foi oferecida para pintos provenientes de matrizes jovens (1,685 vs. 1,718), mas não para aqueles provenientes de matrizes adultas (1,693 vs. 1,694). O consumo de ração total foi maior quando as aves receberam ração pré-inicial vegetal do que contendo ingredientes de origem animal, mas o peso vivo, ganho de peso e conversão alimentar não foram afetados. Aves provenientes de matrizes adultas apresentaram maior consumo de ração durante todo o período. A conversão alimentar não foi afetada pelo tipo de ingrediente utilizado na dieta pré-inicial. Os fatores estudados não influenciaram a viabilidade dos frangos até os 42 dias de idade. Conclui-se que a dieta desintegrada no período pré-inicial melhorou a performance de frangos e esta vantagem foi maior para pintos leves. A dieta vegetal no período pré-inicial não causou prejuízo à performance dos frangos. / The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of breeder age, composition and physical form of the pre-starter diet (supplied at a rate of 200 g per bird) the male broilers performance up to 42 days of age. The treatments consisted of the combinations of 2 types of prestarter diets: formulated to contain vegetal ingredients (corn, soybean meal, full fat soybean) or including animal ingredients (meat and bone meal, blood meal); 2 physical forms: mashed or crumbled; 2 breeder ages: young breeders (32 weeks old) or mature breeders (55 weeks old) in a 2X2X2 factorial arrangement. The experiment was carried out on 4 replicates of 45 birds, in a completely randomized block design. After receiving the dietary treatments in the pre-starter period all birds were given a common starter, growing and finishing diet. Crumbled feed in the pre-starter period resulted in improved liveweight, weight gain, feed intake and feed conversion up to 7 days of age compared to mashed feed. The inclusion of animal ingredients into the prestarter diets decreased liveweight and weight gain up to the age of 7 days but did not affect feed intake and feed conversion. Chicks from mature breeders had higher liveweight, weight gain and feed intake than those from young breeders in the first week, but feed conversion was not affected. Viability of chicks during the first week was not affected by any factor. No significant interaction among factors was observed for all variables. The advantage of feeding crumbled diets during the first week was evident for liveweight and weight gain at 42 days of age and the interaction of physical form and breeder age indicated that the advantage was greater for broilers from young breeders (143g) than from mature breeders (64g) when chicks were fed crumbled diet. Feed conversion to 42 days of age was improved when crumbled diets were supplied to chicks from young breeders (1.685 vs.1.718), but not do those from mature breeders (1.693 vs. 1.694). Total feed intake was higher when chicks received the vegetal pre-starter diet compared to that containing animal origin ingredients, but liveweight, weight gain and feed conversion were not affected. Birds from mature breeders had greater feed intake in the overall period. Feed conversion was not affected by type of ingredients of pre-starter diet. The factors studied did not influence the viability of the broilers to 42 days of age. It was concluded that crumbled feed in the pre-starter period improves the overall performance of chickens and the advantage is greater when fed to small chicks. All-vegetal diet in the pre-starter period is not detrimental to chicken performance.

The growing demand for meat worldwide by the increasing human population (6.8 billion) calls for an increase in livestock production as well as attention to environmental sustainability. Production increases are critical especially in Africa with the highest annual population growth rate (2.5%), where most communities rely on livestock for protein supply. Attempts by intensive livestock farming to optimize production are limited by fibrous quality feeds (roughages) and their unavailability in both developed and developing countries. The overall objective of this study was to scan both domestic and wild herbivores in search for microbial ecosystems with superior fibrolytic potential that can be used as feed additives. It was hypothesized that microbes from wild herbivore can improve fibrous feed breakdown in domesticated ruminants. Experiment 1 evaluated the use of fresh or in vitro cultured faecal inoculum (FF) from two Jersey cows as a potential substitute for rumen fluid (RF). Cultured FF was a better substitute for fresh RF as demonstrated by percentage differences in exocellulase activity (0.4%) and true degradability (TD) (7%), compared to the differences observed between fresh RF and FF for exocellulase activity (33%) and TD (14%). It was applied in subsequent experimentation because it was cost effective (no surgery and reduced sample collection time). The second experiment compared the fibrolytic competence of cultured faecal inocula from three hindgut fermenters (miniature horse (mH), horse (H) and Zebra (ZB)) in summer and winter grazing in their natural environment. Both cellulase enzyme assays (exocellulase, endocellulase and hemicellulase) and in vitro maize stover digestibility study ranked the herbivores according to their fibrolytic competence as ZB > H > mH. The effect of cultured faecal inocula from H, ZB and wildebeest (WB) and its combined systems (N1=H+WB, N2=H+ZB, N3=WB+ZB and N4=H+WB+ZB) on the fermentation of maize stover were also evaluated in vitro. Both enzyme assays and MS degradability studies showed that the combined systems were higher (P<0.01) in fibrolytic activities compared to the individual systems. The microbial ecosystems were ranked as N1 > N2 > N4 > H > ZB > WB >N3; and N3 > N1 > N4 > WB > N2 > ZB >H by their exocellulase activity and degradability parameters, repetitively. The diversity of microbial ecosystems was confirmed by numerous active carboxymethyl cellulase bands present on a carboxymethy cellulose zymograms in experiment 4. The combined microbial ecosystems contain more active and variable bands of cellulases than in the individual microbial ecosystems. Systems N3 and N1 were considered as the best inocula for rumen transinoculation studies. Experiment 5 assessed the in vivo effect of direct-fed microbials from N1 and N3 on MS degradation, ruminal fermentation characteristics and cellulase enzyme profile in sheep. Feed dry matter intake increased (P<0.03) in N1 but tended to increase when inoculated with N3. The treatments, N1 and N3 increased (P<0.05) rumen exocellulase (9.4 and 33.2%, respectively) and endocellulase (82.1 and 47.1%, respectively) specific activities but not hemicellulase activity. Maize stover degradability parameters for N3 (TD, degradability of the insoluble fraction of MS, effective degradability, total SCFA and propionate) measured after 96 h of incubation tended (P>0.05) to be numerically different (1.1, 5.4, 7.1 and 7.9%, respectively). Increase in propionate for N3 was accompanied by higher total SCFA and lower CH4. A decrease in CH4 and no difference in CO2 allow both systems to be environmentally friendly since they have been associated with global warming. These studies showed that direct-fed microbials from N1 and N3 inocula have the potential of improving the utilization of maize stover feeds in ruminants, particularly in view of its simplicity and availability which allows it to be implemented at a relatively lower cost compared to other specific strains or microbial cultures. However, more research is required to identify, purify and classify the superior fibrolytic microbes in the most active ecosystems. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar os efeitos da idade de matriz, composição e forma física da dieta pré-inicial (fornecida à base de 200 g por ave) na performance de frangos de corte machos até os 42 dias de idade. Os tratamentos consistiram das combinações de 2 tipos de ração pré-inicial: formuladas com ingredientes de origem vegetal (milho, farelo de soja e soja integral) ou com subprodutos de origem animal (farinha de carne e ossos, farinha de sangue); 2 formas físicas: farelada ou desintegrada e 2 idades de matrizes: jovem (32 semanas) ou adulta (55 semanas), num arranjo fatorial 2x2x2. O experimento foi realizado com 4 repetições de 45 aves, em blocos casualizados. Seguindo-se os tratamentos dietéticos na fase pré-inicial, todas as aves passaram a receber uma ração comum nas fases inicial, crescimento e final. A ração desintegrada no período pré-inicial resultou em maior peso vivo, ganho de peso, consumo de ração e conversão alimentar aos 7 dias de idade em comparação à ração farelada. A inclusão de ingredientes de origem animal nas dietas pré-iniciais resultou em um decréscimo de peso vivo e ganho de peso aos 7 dias de idade, mas não afetou o consumo de ração e a conversão alimentar. Pintos provenientes de matrizes adultas apresentaram maior peso vivo, ganho de peso e consumo de ração quando comparados àqueles provenientes de matrizes jovens na primeira semana de vida, mas a conversão alimentar não foi afetada. A viabilidade dos pintos na primeira semana não foi afetada por nenhum fator. Na primeira semana não foi observada nenhuma interação significativa entre os fatores para as variáveis. A vantagem da dieta desintegrada durante a primeira semana foi evidente para peso vivo e ganho de peso até os 42 dias de idade e a interação entre forma física e idade da matriz indicou uma vantagem para os frangos provenientes de matrizes jovens (143g) em relação àqueles provenientes de matrizes adultas (64g) quando a ração desintegrada foi fornecida. A conversão alimentar aos 42 dias de idade foi melhor quando a dieta desintegrada foi oferecida para pintos provenientes de matrizes jovens (1,685 vs. 1,718), mas não para aqueles provenientes de matrizes adultas (1,693 vs. 1,694). O consumo de ração total foi maior quando as aves receberam ração pré-inicial vegetal do que contendo ingredientes de origem animal, mas o peso vivo, ganho de peso e conversão alimentar não foram afetados. Aves provenientes de matrizes adultas apresentaram maior consumo de ração durante todo o período. A conversão alimentar não foi afetada pelo tipo de ingrediente utilizado na dieta pré-inicial. Os fatores estudados não influenciaram a viabilidade dos frangos até os 42 dias de idade. Conclui-se que a dieta desintegrada no período pré-inicial melhorou a performance de frangos e esta vantagem foi maior para pintos leves. A dieta vegetal no período pré-inicial não causou prejuízo à performance dos frangos. / The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of breeder age, composition and physical form of the pre-starter diet (supplied at a rate of 200 g per bird) the male broilers performance up to 42 days of age. The treatments consisted of the combinations of 2 types of prestarter diets: formulated to contain vegetal ingredients (corn, soybean meal, full fat soybean) or including animal ingredients (meat and bone meal, blood meal); 2 physical forms: mashed or crumbled; 2 breeder ages: young breeders (32 weeks old) or mature breeders (55 weeks old) in a 2X2X2 factorial arrangement. The experiment was carried out on 4 replicates of 45 birds, in a completely randomized block design. After receiving the dietary treatments in the pre-starter period all birds were given a common starter, growing and finishing diet. Crumbled feed in the pre-starter period resulted in improved liveweight, weight gain, feed intake and feed conversion up to 7 days of age compared to mashed feed. The inclusion of animal ingredients into the prestarter diets decreased liveweight and weight gain up to the age of 7 days but did not affect feed intake and feed conversion. Chicks from mature breeders had higher liveweight, weight gain and feed intake than those from young breeders in the first week, but feed conversion was not affected. Viability of chicks during the first week was not affected by any factor. No significant interaction among factors was observed for all variables. The advantage of feeding crumbled diets during the first week was evident for liveweight and weight gain at 42 days of age and the interaction of physical form and breeder age indicated that the advantage was greater for broilers from young breeders (143g) than from mature breeders (64g) when chicks were fed crumbled diet. Feed conversion to 42 days of age was improved when crumbled diets were supplied to chicks from young breeders (1.685 vs.1.718), but not do those from mature breeders (1.693 vs. 1.694). Total feed intake was higher when chicks received the vegetal pre-starter diet compared to that containing animal origin ingredients, but liveweight, weight gain and feed conversion were not affected. Birds from mature breeders had greater feed intake in the overall period. Feed conversion was not affected by type of ingredients of pre-starter diet. The factors studied did not influence the viability of the broilers to 42 days of age. It was concluded that crumbled feed in the pre-starter period improves the overall performance of chickens and the advantage is greater when fed to small chicks. All-vegetal diet in the pre-starter period is not detrimental to chicken performance.