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The phase-encoded method of NMR flow imaging is examined in detail. The motion of isochromatic groups in the direction of suitably balanced magnetic field gradients will give a phase change in the NMR signal directly proportional to the velocity, acceleration, or higher derivative of position, dependent upon the form of the field gradient. If a simple bipolar pulse is used then the phase change, for isochromats moving with constant velocity, will be proportional to the velocity. If two such pulses are placed back to back then the phase change is proportional to the acceleration. The motion of isochromats in the magnetic field gradients used for imaging will also cause phase changes. These effects are considered, and simple methods of reducing them presented. Phase errors due to main field inhomogeneity are shown to be eliminated by a simple phase difference technique. In this two image data sets having different flow sensitivities are obtained, and the phase difference between them calculated. Velocity images were obtained using this technique, both by the manipulation of the frequency-encoding and selection gradients, and by the insertion of bipolar pulses in the imaging sequence. Acceleration images were also produced by adding double bipolar pulses to the imaging sequence. Both spin-echo and field-echo sequences were used. Field-echo sequences were shown to be superior for high velocities, particularly when the direction of flow is through the slice, otherwise spin-echo sequences were preferred. The Fourier imaging of velocity is also examined, and images presented. This technique is only considered to be useful for projective imaging, where it is shown to have an SNR advantage over established methods. Using two specially designed phantoms the accuracy of all these techniques is shown to be within 5%.

Research in lab-on-a-chip (LOC) technology involving microfluidics is a growing field aiming at the development of miniaturized biomedical systems with rich functionality. In order to design effective LOC microfluidic systems, the flow fields and the fluids inside LOC devices need to be carefully characterized. High-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) offers a powerful non-intrusive technology for this application. In this thesis, the design and implementation of a prototype for a desktop high-resolution MRI instrument, consisting of a magnet, gradient coils, gradient amplifiers, and radio frequency (RF) electronics, is presented. To reduce the size and cost of this MRI instrument, a permanent magnetic configuration with a magnetic flux density of 0.6 T is designed with off-the-shelf NdFeB permanent magnets. The coils of the triaxial gradient module are developed using a novel lithography technique. This gradient module is capable of generating gradient fields as high as 2.83 T/m with custom made current amplifiers. The radio frequency (RF) probe is integrated with the gradient module and is connected to the RF electronics which are made using off-the-shelf components. Pulse sequences and signal processing for acquiring static images and velocity profiles are described. The performance of this instrument in terms of static and dynamic image resolution are presented. As a preliminary test, the velocity profile of water flowing inside a small tube was measured with a nominal resolution of 40 μm. The instrument is designed for a static resolution of better than 30 μm and a velocity resolution better than 50 μm/s. Improvements to the current instrument in addition to theoretical limitations are also detailed.

Research in lab-on-a-chip (LOC) technology involving microfluidics is a growing field aiming at the development of miniaturized biomedical systems with rich functionality. In order to design effective LOC microfluidic systems, the flow fields and the fluids inside LOC devices need to be carefully characterized. High-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) offers a powerful non-intrusive technology for this application. In this thesis, the design and implementation of a prototype for a desktop high-resolution MRI instrument, consisting of a magnet, gradient coils, gradient amplifiers, and radio frequency (RF) electronics, is presented. To reduce the size and cost of this MRI instrument, a permanent magnetic configuration with a magnetic flux density of 0.6 T is designed with off-the-shelf NdFeB permanent magnets. The coils of the triaxial gradient module are developed using a novel lithography technique. This gradient module is capable of generating gradient fields as high as 2.83 T/m with custom made current amplifiers. The radio frequency (RF) probe is integrated with the gradient module and is connected to the RF electronics which are made using off-the-shelf components. Pulse sequences and signal processing for acquiring static images and velocity profiles are described. The performance of this instrument in terms of static and dynamic image resolution are presented. As a preliminary test, the velocity profile of water flowing inside a small tube was measured with a nominal resolution of 40 μm. The instrument is designed for a static resolution of better than 30 μm and a velocity resolution better than 50 μm/s. Improvements to the current instrument in addition to theoretical limitations are also detailed.

Research in lab-on-a-chip (LOC) technology involving microfluidics is a growing field aiming at the development of miniaturized biomedical systems with rich functionality. In order to design effective LOC microfluidic systems, the flow fields and the fluids inside LOC devices need to be carefully characterized. High-resolution magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) offers a powerful non-intrusive technology for this application. In this thesis, the design and implementation of a prototype for a desktop high-resolution MRI instrument, consisting of a magnet, gradient coils, gradient amplifiers, and radio frequency (RF) electronics, is presented. To reduce the size and cost of this MRI instrument, a permanent magnetic configuration with a magnetic flux density of 0.6 T is designed with off-the-shelf NdFeB permanent magnets. The coils of the triaxial gradient module are developed using a novel lithography technique. This gradient module is capable of generating gradient fields as high as 2.83 T/m with custom made current amplifiers. The radio frequency (RF) probe is integrated with the gradient module and is connected to the RF electronics which are made using off-the-shelf components. Pulse sequences and signal processing for acquiring static images and velocity profiles are described. The performance of this instrument in terms of static and dynamic image resolution are presented. As a preliminary test, the velocity profile of water flowing inside a small tube was measured with a nominal resolution of 40 μm. The instrument is designed for a static resolution of better than 30 μm and a velocity resolution better than 50 μm/s. Improvements to the current instrument in addition to theoretical limitations are also detailed. / Applied Science, Faculty of / Electrical and Computer Engineering, Department of / Graduate

Coating onto a moving substrate several films simultaneously on top of each other is a challenging exercise. This is due to the fact, depending on operating conditions (thickness and velocity of individual layers and the physical properties of the coating fluids), flow instabilities may arise at the interfaces between the layers and on the top layer. These instabilities ruin the application of the final multi-layered coating and must be avoided. This research addresses this coating flow situation and seeks to develop guidelines to avoid these instabilities. Following a critical literature survey, this thesis presents a novel experimental method that visualises multi-layered coating flow down an inclined multi-slot die. The visualisation is obtained using a unique configuration including a high-speed camera, telecentric objective lens and illumination. The results show for a single layer, as the die angle and Reynolds number increases, the flow becomes more unstable and for a dual layer flow, as Re increases the peak to peak amplitude and the frequency decreases at the free surface and interface. The latter was unexpected and does not conform with existing literature. The triple layer results show either a monotonically increasing or increasing from first to second layer viscosity stratifications are the most stable flows along with flow heights in the first and second layers of <22% and >18% of the total thickness respectively, which concur with current literature. The visualisation additionally obtained other instabilities including single layer back-wetting and vortices, and multilayer slot invasion with the findings concurring with current literature. / EPRSC/Tata Steel Industrial CASE Studentship; EP/J501840/1

Cerebral autoregulation is an intrinsic physiological response that maintains a constant cerebral blood flow (CBF) despite dynamic changes in the systemic blood pressure. Autoregulation is achieved through changes in the resistance of the small blood vessels in the brain through reflexive vasodilatation and vasoconstriction. Cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR) is a measure of this response. CVR is defined as a change in CBF in response to a given vasodilatory stimulus. CVR therefore potentially reflects the vasodilatory reserve capacity of the cerebral vasculature to maintain a constant cerebral blood flow. A decrease in CVR (which is interpreted as a reduction in the vasodilatory reserve capacity) in the vascular territory downstream of a larger stenosed supply artery correlates strongly with the risk of a hemodynamic stroke. As a result, the use of CVR studies to evaluate the state of the cerebral autoregulatory capacity has clinical utility. Application of CVR studies in the clinical scenario depends on a thorough understanding of the normal response. The goal of this thesis therefore was to map CVR throughout the brain in normal healthy individuals using Blood Oxygen Level Dependant functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (BOLD MRI) as an index to CBF and precisely controlled changes in end-tidal partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PETCO2) as the global flow stimulus.

Cerebral autoregulation is an intrinsic physiological response that maintains a constant cerebral blood flow (CBF) despite dynamic changes in the systemic blood pressure. Autoregulation is achieved through changes in the resistance of the small blood vessels in the brain through reflexive vasodilatation and vasoconstriction. Cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR) is a measure of this response. CVR is defined as a change in CBF in response to a given vasodilatory stimulus. CVR therefore potentially reflects the vasodilatory reserve capacity of the cerebral vasculature to maintain a constant cerebral blood flow. A decrease in CVR (which is interpreted as a reduction in the vasodilatory reserve capacity) in the vascular territory downstream of a larger stenosed supply artery correlates strongly with the risk of a hemodynamic stroke. As a result, the use of CVR studies to evaluate the state of the cerebral autoregulatory capacity has clinical utility. Application of CVR studies in the clinical scenario depends on a thorough understanding of the normal response. The goal of this thesis therefore was to map CVR throughout the brain in normal healthy individuals using Blood Oxygen Level Dependant functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (BOLD MRI) as an index to CBF and precisely controlled changes in end-tidal partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PETCO2) as the global flow stimulus.

Behavior of particles in buoyancy driven turbulent flow at Ra ≈ 10º is investigated experimentally. The volume fraction of the particles is low enough for the inter particle influence to be neglected, the mass loading of particle is low enough that the turbulence as not modified, and the particles Reynolds numbers (Re p ) st are small enough that the wake effect can be neglected. The buoyancy driven turbulent flow is created by maintaining an unstable density difference, using NaCl dissolved in water, across the ends of a long vertical tube. There is no mean flow and the turbulence is axially homogeneous. A method for uniform introduction of the particles was devised. Glass particles (S.G=2.4-2.5) of different diameter ranges (50-400 µm) are introduced into this flow. The sizes of particles considered are less than the Kolmogrov length scale corresponding to the turbulence level. The turbulence intensity level was varied in order to match its characteristic time and velocity scale to those of the particles. The ratio of the timescales, the Stokes number; is in the range (0.01-0.55); Stokes number is defined as a ratio of the viscous relaxation time of the particle and a turbulent time scale, and represents the effect of the particle inertia in the interaction with the turbulence, Stk =τp/τk. Another important non-dimensional parameter is the velocity ratio, the k ratio of the particle settling velocity in still fluid to a characteristic turbulence velocity. The flow field is illuminated by a continuous Argon-ion laser and a PHOTRON high- speed digital camera is used for imaging. The raw images are processed to evaluate particle centers followed by their velocity measurements. The objective of the experiment is to check for the effect of the turbulent flow on the sedimentation rate of the heavy particles. This sedimentation rate is compared with the settling velocity obtained in still water. It is expected that within a certain range of Stokes numbers and velocity ratios the sedimentation rate would be substantially changed, and the spatial concentration distribution of the particles may become patchy implying that turbulence may actually inhibit rather than enhance mixing of particles. By varying the turbulence level and particle mean diameter we achieved a set of values for the particle parameters, namely St k. ≈ 0.01, 0.1, 0.14, 0.55 and velocity ratios[[Wp ] St]]≈ 0.2, .0, 0.5, 2.25 respectively. The w rms velocity ratio [[Wp ] St /wf defined as a ratio between the article terminal velocity [Wp ] St and a suitable flow velocity scale; it is a measure of the residence time of the particle in an eddy, in eddy turnover time units. In this study we have considered the turbulence r.m.s velocity for the flow velocity scale.The particle Reynolds number (Re p)st corresponding to these 4 cases were 0.2, 31.5, 4.0, 31.5. Some preliminary quantitative measurements were made only for the 150-200 µm particles and turbulence level w rms ≈ 4.0 cm/s,corresponding to Stk ≈0.14 [[Wp ] St] = 0.5. A quantitative picture was obtained for the other cases. Streak pictures for these four different groups of particles revealed that Stk and the velocity ratio [[Wp ] St ] were important in influencing the particle- w rms turbulence interaction not the Stk alone. The r.m.s velocity fluctuations of particles in both the lateral (utp) and vertical direction (wtp) measured were found to be different from those obtained in still-water case.(For equations, pl see the pdf file)