In historically fire-dependent upland oak forests of the eastern U.S., anthropogenic fire exclusion is likely causing a hypothesized feedback loop between an increase in fire-sensitive species and self-promoting, fireree conditions at the detriment of oak regeneration. This study determined how shifts from oaks (Quercus stellata and Q. falcata) to fire-sensitive non-oaks (Carya spp., Liquidambar styraciflua, and Ulmus alata) affected flammability and related processes that consequently determine species composition. Using treatments of increasing non-oak leaf litter, experimental burns were conducted and flammability measured under field conditions, and a laboratory litter moisture desorption experiment was conducted. As litter composition shifted from oak-dominated to non-oak-dominated, flammability decreased (R2 = 0.59, P < 0.001) and moisture-holding capacity increased (R2=0.88, P<0.001). To prevent further shifts toward fireree conditions and loss of economically and ecologically valuable oaks, prescribed fire should be reintroduced soon while oak maintains overstory dominance and controls forest flammability.

The vegetation of the Sydney Basin, Australia, is highly flammable and subject to a wide range of fire regimes. Sclerophyllous shrubs and sedges are common and in some vegetation types up to 70 % of fuel consumed during a fire can be live. Research into fire behaviour and fuel dynamics has been minimal. To address this issue this thesis investigated the principal factor affecting the ease of ignition and rate of combustion of individual fuel particles and fuel beds in bushfires: dead fine fuel moisture (FFM). Two common Sydney Basin vegetation types, eucalypt woodland and heathland, each with a history of problematic fire management, were measured in the field for diurnal fluctuations in FFM following rain, under conditions similar to when prescribed burns are conducted. The FFM components of current operational fire behaviour models were found to be inadequate for predictions of FFM and fire behaviour under these conditions. The equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of five fuel types from the field site was investigated in a laboratory study. An existing function describing EMC as a function of temperature and relative humidity was evaluated and found to be very accurate for these fuels. Two FFM predictive models incorporating this function were evaluated on the field data and the laboratory results were shown to be applicable to the estimation of FFM in the field. One model gave very accurate predictions of FFM below fibre saturation point, but its accuracy was reduced when screen level conditions were used instead of those measured at fuel level. A recent process-based model that accounts for rainfall showed promise for predicting when fuel is < 25 % FFM. Systematic problems with the radiation budget of this model reduced the accuracy of predictions and further refinement is required. Live fine fuel moisture content (LFMC) of common heathland shrubs and sedge was investigated over two years and found to be both seasonal and influenced by phenology. LFMC minima occurred in late winter and spring (August to October), and maxima were in summer (December to February) when new growth was recorded. The dominant near-surface fuel in mature heath was sedge. It was found to have little seasonal variation in its??? percentage dead but the percentage dead maxima occured at the same time as the LFMC minima of shrubs and sedge in both years. Simple instantaneous models for duff moisture content in woodland and heathland and LFMC and the percentage dead sedge in heathland were developed. The information gained by this study will form the basis for future development of fuel moisture models for prescribed burning guidelines and fire spread models specific to the vegetation communities of the Sydney Basin.

Shrub fuels are capable of extreme fire behaviour under conditions that are often moderate in other fuels. There is also a narrow range of conditions that determine fire success in these fuels, below which fires may ignite but hardly spread and above which they ignite and develop into fast moving and high intensity fires. This is due to the elevated dead fine fuels that dry rapidly and carry fire. Fire danger rating systems designed for forest and grassland fuels do not predict fire potential in shrub fuels very well. Fire management requires fire danger rating systems to provide accurate and timely information on fire potential for all important fuel types. Studies of fuel moisture, ignition and fire spread were carried out in the field in gorse (Ulex europaeus L.) shrub fuels to predict the moisture content of the elevated dead fuels and to define the conditions that govern fire development. The accuracy of the Fine Fuel Moisture Code (FFMC) of the Canadian Forest Fire Weather Index (FWI) System to predict moisture content of this layer was assessed. A bookkeeping method to predict moisture content was developed based on semi-physical models of equilibrium moisture content, fuel response time and the FFMC. The FFMC predicted moisture content poorly, because the FWI System is based on the litter layer of a mature conifer forest. The gorse elevated dead fuel layer is more aerated and dries faster than this conifer forest litter layer. The bookkeeping method was reliable and allowed adjustment of fuel response time based on weather conditions. Difficulties in modelling meteorological conditions under the gorse canopy limited its accuracy. Separate thresholds determined ignition and fire spread success, with both based on the elevated dead fuel moisture content. Options to improve the shrub fire danger rating system were presented based on these findings. The results are significant because they are based on data collected in the field under real conditions. Validation of these results and extension to other shrub fuels is required before the findings are used to change current models. However, the study has significantly advanced the knowledge of fire behaviour in shrub fuels and will contribute to safe and effective fire management in these fuels.

For two fire seasons in Nordegg, Alberta, a system of in-stand weather stations were arranged along a north and south aligned valley and combined with collection of destructive fine fuel moisture content data in order to quantify variations due to differences in slope and aspect. South-facing sites were found to be slightly warmer (1.5°C), less humid (5%) and received on average 20% more solar radiation than the north-facing sites during the peak burning period of the day. Based on these weather observations a difference of 1 or 2 % moisture content between north and south sites was predicted using existing theoretical relationships. A corresponding difference in observed moisture content was not identified, due to the low transmittance recorded at the in-stand sites (<10% of open solar radiation measurements), variation amongst destructive samples and logistical limits on the number of replicates collected.

For two fire seasons in Nordegg, Alberta, a system of in-stand weather stations were arranged along a north and south aligned valley and combined with collection of destructive fine fuel moisture content data in order to quantify variations due to differences in slope and aspect. South-facing sites were found to be slightly warmer (1.5°C), less humid (5%) and received on average 20% more solar radiation than the north-facing sites during the peak burning period of the day. Based on these weather observations a difference of 1 or 2 % moisture content between north and south sites was predicted using existing theoretical relationships. A corresponding difference in observed moisture content was not identified, due to the low transmittance recorded at the in-stand sites (<10% of open solar radiation measurements), variation amongst destructive samples and logistical limits on the number of replicates collected.

The vegetation of the Sydney Basin, Australia, is highly flammable and subject to a wide range of fire regimes. Sclerophyllous shrubs and sedges are common and in some vegetation types up to 70 % of fuel consumed during a fire can be live. Research into fire behaviour and fuel dynamics has been minimal. To address this issue this thesis investigated the principal factor affecting the ease of ignition and rate of combustion of individual fuel particles and fuel beds in bushfires: dead fine fuel moisture (FFM). Two common Sydney Basin vegetation types, eucalypt woodland and heathland, each with a history of problematic fire management, were measured in the field for diurnal fluctuations in FFM following rain, under conditions similar to when prescribed burns are conducted. The FFM components of current operational fire behaviour models were found to be inadequate for predictions of FFM and fire behaviour under these conditions. The equilibrium moisture content (EMC) of five fuel types from the field site was investigated in a laboratory study. An existing function describing EMC as a function of temperature and relative humidity was evaluated and found to be very accurate for these fuels. Two FFM predictive models incorporating this function were evaluated on the field data and the laboratory results were shown to be applicable to the estimation of FFM in the field. One model gave very accurate predictions of FFM below fibre saturation point, but its accuracy was reduced when screen level conditions were used instead of those measured at fuel level. A recent process-based model that accounts for rainfall showed promise for predicting when fuel is < 25 % FFM. Systematic problems with the radiation budget of this model reduced the accuracy of predictions and further refinement is required. Live fine fuel moisture content (LFMC) of common heathland shrubs and sedge was investigated over two years and found to be both seasonal and influenced by phenology. LFMC minima occurred in late winter and spring (August to October), and maxima were in summer (December to February) when new growth was recorded. The dominant near-surface fuel in mature heath was sedge. It was found to have little seasonal variation in its??? percentage dead but the percentage dead maxima occured at the same time as the LFMC minima of shrubs and sedge in both years. Simple instantaneous models for duff moisture content in woodland and heathland and LFMC and the percentage dead sedge in heathland were developed. The information gained by this study will form the basis for future development of fuel moisture models for prescribed burning guidelines and fire spread models specific to the vegetation communities of the Sydney Basin.

For roughly the past 200 years land-managers have used the practice of “muirburning” to manipulate the structure of heather (Calluna vulgaris) to create a patchwork of habitat structures able to provide forage and nesting sites for red grouse (Lagopus lagopus scoticus) as well as grazing for sheep (Ovis aries) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). This thesis investigates both the behaviour and impact of management fires in recognition of the need to develop multi-aim land management practices that ensure both continued productivity and protection of biodiversity in the face of climatic and environmental change. Fuel structure and loading are crucial controlling factors on both fire behaviour and impact governing both rate of spread and heat release to the ground surface. A visual obstruction method is developed that estimates total and fine fuel loading as well as the structure of the heather canopy. In order to adequately understand fire impact a dimensional analysis approach is taken to estimating the mass of burnt heather stems. Experiments at a number of spatial and temporal scales relate variation in heather fuel moisture content to stand structure and variation in weather conditions. Monitoring shows moisture contents to be relatively stable temporally, but spatially variable. Periods of extreme low moisture contents in early spring are associated with frozen ground, winter cuticle damage and physiological drought. Such conditions may have contributed to the large number of wildfires in 2003. A replicated plot design was used to investigate the effect of weather conditions and fuel loading on fire behaviour. An empirical approach is taken to fire behaviour modelling with equations describing rate of spread and fireline intensity being developed on the basis of fuel structure descriptors and windspeed. The theoretical negative correlation between fuel bed density and rate of spread is demonstrated to hold true for heather stands, while the impact of heterogeneity in fuel bed structure is also investigated. Redundancy Analysis is used to investigate the influence of multiple predictors on a number of aspects of fire behaviour including: rate of spread, fireline intensity, flame length and ground surface heating. Data from this and previous studies are used to ground-truth a number of fire behaviour prediction systems including BehavePlus and the Canadian Fire Behaviour Prediction System. Finally linkages between fire behaviour, fire severity and heather regeneration are investigated. A number of proxy measures of ‘Immediate Severity’ are tested and used to examine the influence of fires on plant regeneration. The post-fire development of stands is shown to relate primarily to stand age and structure before burning, and to post-fire substrates rather than variation in fire behaviour and severity.

Tesis por compendio / [ES] Los bosques de Pinus halepensis, están sometidos a periodos con condiciones meteorológicas extremas de altas temperaturas y estrés hídrico. Estas condiciones, junto al actual contexto de emergencia climática genera condiciones ideales para los grandes incendios forestales de proporciones catastróficas con graves consecuencias en la salud y el bienestar de las personas. En este contexto, una de las disciplinas de conocimiento científico que apenas se han investigado hasta la fecha en relación con el riesgo de incendios forestales es la electrofisiología vegetal. Por ello, en la presente tesis se expone la evaluación experimental de las señales eléctricas vegetales como posibles variables equivalentes del estado fenológico en los modelos de gestión, como base para el futuro desarrollo de sistemas de redes de sensores inalámbricos, todo ello a través del análisis de las características estáticas y dinámicas de las señales electrofisiológicas de la principal especie arbórea de la cuenca mediterránea occidental, el Pinus halepensis. La tesis se ha estructurado en tres capítulos, siguiendo cada uno de ellos el método científico. En el primer capítulo se analiza la evaluación de algunos de los factores estáticos más significativos que influyen en el patrón de distribución de las señales electrofisiológicas del Pinus halepensis. Tras un diseño muestral adecuado, los resultados demuestran que la madurez del árbol influye directamente en la tensión eléctrica determinada por la tensión medida, siendo los árboles jóvenes los que presentan una mayor amplitud en la señal eléctrica, la cual se muestra uniforme en el árbol, siendo independiente de la colocación de los electrodos en altura y en orientación cardinal. En el segundo capítulo se analiza la evolución temporal de la señal eléctrica registrada, tanto diaria como anual. Los resultados obtenidos demuestran que las señales electrofisiológicas presentan valores significativamente más altos y de mayor amplitud durante los periodos más húmedos con temperaturas moderadas, mientras que las señales son representativamente mucho más bajas, durante los períodos con mayor estrés vegetativo del año. La metodología aplicada y los resultados obtenidos en este capítulo de la tesis demuestran que las señales electrofisiológicas pueden ser consideradas un indicador del estado fisiológico de los árboles en situaciones de estrés vegetativo. Finalmente, en el tercer capítulo de la tesis se analiza la evaluación de las señales electrofisiológicas como variables a incluir en los modelos de gestión del riesgo de incendio forestal. Los resultados obtenidos nos han permitido demostrar que el LFMC del Pinus halepensis no muestra variaciones estacionales significativas bajo la influencia de factores extremos de riesgo de incendio, mientras que las diferencias registradas en las señales electrofisiológicas muestran oscilaciones con variaciones significativas, que están fuertemente correlacionadas con los periodos de condiciones meteorológicas extremadamente favorables para los incendios forestales. Finalmente, también se ha podido demostrar una muy alta correlación entre las tensiones medidas y el principal índice de riesgo de incendio utilizados por las agencias de emergencias Con todos los resultados obtenidos, podemos concluir finalmente que las variaciones en las señales electrofisiológicas están estrechamente relacionadas con el estado fenológico de los Pinus halepensis y con el riesgo de incendio forestal. Lo que abre la posibilidad de una monitorización in situ de las masas forestales en las que domina esta especie, lo que sería fácilmente integrable en los sistemas de modelización y gestión preventiva de los incendios forestales en los ecosistemas mediterráneos. / [CA] Els boscos de Pinus halepensis, estan sotmesos a períodes amb condicions meteorològiques extremes d'altes temperatures i estrés hídric. Aquestes condicions, al costat de l'actual context d'emergència climàtica genera condicions ideals per als grans incendis forestals de proporcions catastròfiques amb greus conseqüències en la salut i el benestar de les persones. En aquest context, una de les disciplines de coneixement científic que a penes s'han investigat fins hui en relació amb el risc d'incendis forestals és l'electrofisiologia vegetal. Per això, en la present tesi s'exposa l'avaluació experimental dels senyals elèctrics vegetals com a possibles variables equivalents de l'estat fenològic en els models de gestió, com a base per al futur desenvolupament de sistemes de xarxes de sensors sense fils, tot això a través de l'anàlisi de les característiques estàtiques i dinàmiques dels senyals electrofisiològics de la principal espècie arbòria de la conca mediterrània occidental, el Pinus halepensis. La tesi s'ha estructurat en tres capítols, seguint cadascun d'ells el mètode científic. En el primer capítol s'analitza l'avaluació d'alguns dels factors estàtics més significatius que influeixen en el patró de distribució dels senyals electrofisiològics del Pinus halepensis. Després d'un disseny mostral adequat, els resultats demostren que la maduresa de l'arbre influeix directament en la tensió elèctrica determinada per la tensió mesurada, sent els arbres joves els que presenten una major amplitud en el senyal elèctric, la qual es mostra uniforme en l'arbre, sent independent de la col·locació dels elèctrodes en altura i en orientació cardinal. En el segon capítol s'analitza l'evolució temporal del senyal elèctric registrat, tant diària com anual. Els resultats obtinguts demostren que els senyals electrofisiològics presenten valors significativament més alts i de major amplitud durant els períodes més humits amb temperatures moderades, mentre que els senyals són representativament molt més baixes, durant els períodes amb major estrés vegetatiu de l'any. La metodologia aplicada i els resultats aconseguits en aquest capítol de la tesi demostren que els senyals electrofisiològics poden ser considerades un indicador de l'estat fisiològic dels arbres en situacions d'estrés vegetatiu. Finalment, en el tercer capítol de la tesi s'analitza l'avaluació dels senyals electrofisiològics com a variables a incloure en els models de gestió del risc d'incendi forestal. Els resultats aconseguits ens han permés demostrar que el LFMC del Pinus halepensis no mostra variacions estacionals significatives sota la influència de factors extrems de risc d'incendi, mentre que les diferències registrades en els senyals electrofisiològics mostren oscil·lacions amb variacions significatives, que estan fortament correlacionades amb els períodes de condicions meteorològiques extremadament favorables per als incendis forestals. Finalment, també s'ha pogut demostrar una molt alta correlació entre les tensions mesurades i el principal índex de risc d'incendi utilitzats per les agències d'emergències Amb tots els resultats aconseguits, podem concloure finalment que les variacions en els senyals electrofisiològics estan estretament relacionades amb l'estat fenològic dels Pinus halepensis i amb el risc d'incendi forestal. El que obri la possibilitat d'un monitoratge in situ de les masses forestals en les quals domina aquesta espècie, la qual cosa seria fàcilment integrable en els sistemes de modelització i gestió preventiva dels incendis forestals en els ecosistemes mediterranis. / [EN] Pinus halepensis forests are subjected to periods of extreme weather conditions of high temperatures and water stress. These conditions, together with the current context of climatic emergency, generate ideal conditions for large forest fires of catastrophic proportions with serious consequences on the health and welfare of people. In this context, one of the disciplines of scientific knowledge that has hardly been investigated to date in relation to the risk of forest fires is plant electrophysiology. Therefore, this thesis presents the experimental evaluation of plant electrical signals as possible equivalent variables of the phenological state in management models, as a basis for the future development of wireless sensor network systems, all through the analysis of the static and dynamic characteristics of the electrophysiological signals of the main tree species of the western Mediterranean basin, Pinus halepensis. The thesis has been structured in three chapters, each of them following the scientific method. In the first chapter, the evaluation of some of the most significant static factors that influence the distribution pattern of electrophysiological signals in Pinus halepensis is analyzed. After an adequate sample design, the results show that the maturity of the tree directly influences the electrical voltage determined by the measured voltage, being the young trees those that present a greater amplitude in the electrical signal, which is uniform in the tree, being independent of the placement of the electrodes in height and in cardinal orientation. In the second chapter, the temporal evolution of the electrical signal recorded, both daily and annual, is analyzed. The results obtained show that the electrophysiological signals present significantly higher values and greater amplitude during the wettest periods with moderate temperatures, while the signals are representatively much lower during the periods with greater vegetative stress of the year. The methodology applied and the results obtained in this chapter of the thesis demonstrate that electrophysiological signals can be considered an indicator of the physiological state of trees in situations of vegetative stress. Finally, the third chapter of the thesis analyzes the evaluation of electrophysiological signals as variables to be included in wildfire risk management models. The results obtained have allowed us to demonstrate that the LFMC of Pinus halepensis does not show significant seasonal variations under the influence of extreme fire risk factors, while the differences recorded in the electrophysiological signals show oscillations with significant variations, which are strongly correlated with periods of extremely favorable meteorological conditions for forest fires. Finally, it has also been possible to demonstrate a very high correlation between the measured voltages and the main fire risk index used by emergency agencies. With all the results obtained, we can finally conclude that variations in electrophysiological signals are closely related to the phenological state of Pinus halepensis and to the risk of forest fire. This opens up the possibility of in situ monitoring of forest stands dominated by this species, which could be easily integrated into systems for modeling and preventive management of forest fires in Mediterranean ecosystems. / Zapata Zapata, R. (2023). Análisis de las señales electrofisiológicas en Pinus halepensis Mill como base a su aplicación en sensores inalámbricos para la prevención de incendios forestales [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/197905 / Compendio

Heathlands typically experience regimes consisting of frequent and intense fires. These fire regimes play important roles in the lifecycles and population dynamics of all species in these communities. Prescribed fire is commonly applied to heathlands to minimise the risk of wildfires as well as to promote biodiversity. Ignitions in heathlands tend to either be unsustainable, or quickly develop into rapidly spreading intense fires. This presents a major problem for the application of prescribed fire and is the primary focus of this thesis. Heathland ignition has been investigated in three sections; litter ignition; vertical development of fire into the shrub layer; and horizontal spread through the shrub layer. These were studied in laboratory experiments using miniature versions of field fuels. Ignition success in litter layers was related to the dead fuel moisture content. Litter type, ignition source, and presence of wind were found to affect the range of ignitable fuel moisture contents of a litter bed. The effect of litter type was best explained by density. Dense litter beds required drier conditions for ignition than low density litter beds. The vertical development of fire into shrubs was mostly dependent on live fuel moisture content, but crown base height, presence of wind, ignition source, shrub height and the percentage of dead elevated fuel were also important. Horizontal spread of fires through shrub layers was most affected by the presence of a litter layer, with nearly all ignitions successful when there was an underlying litter fire. Fire spread would only occur in shrubs without a litter layer when the shrub layer was dense and dry, or had a substantial dead fuel component. Spread was more likely to be sustained when there was wind. Models predicting the moisture content of dead fuels were tested in heathlands, and as would be expected those that can be calibrated for different fuel types were found to have the best performance. Fuel moisture content and fuel load models were reviewed for heathlands, and a number of recommendations for future research were made.