Research suggested that African American women (AAW) leaders are overlooked as candidates for senior level positions in organizations. The problem that prompted this study was the lack of empirical research surrounding the intersectionality of race and gender and how this dual identity informed their leadership development and excluded AAW from the leadership promotion group identified by organizations. The research questions addressed how AAW described their career trajectory, strategies that were used to transform institutional barriers into leadership opportunities, how AAW leaders perceived their dual identity as contributing to their unique organizational experiences, and how AAW leaders perceived their role as mentors. This study was grounded in the critical race theory (CRT) as it pertains to the concept of the intersectionality of race and gender. Semistructured interviews with a purposive sample of 12 participants were used to obtain data along with thematic coding to analyze the data. Key findings included the women expressing both subtle and blatant racial and gender discrimination in the workplace. The participants identified self-advocacy as crucial to their success along with having strong mentors. One of the main conclusions was that the corporate world is a long- standing, white, male network and continues to be an obstacle for women in today's workplace. Recommendations for future research include studying bi-racial women and women who are in lower managerial roles to identify whether they experience similar obstacles as women in senior leadership roles. Social change implications include organizational modifications across multiple industry types that would create more positive perceptions, descriptions, and trust in the leadership abilities of AAW.

Gender discrimination is a world-wide matter, it is the consequence of the type of violence that is built into structures and effectively deprives women from basic liberties and opportunities (Baliamoune-Lutz, 2013:01-02: Galtung, 2015:181). As many women cannot stay in their countries because of ongoing conflicts, poverty, persecution and their position in the society, -exactly the same reasons prevent them from leaving. At the time that poverty and conflicts have driven a massive increase in global migration, it has become a most urgent topic in question (IMR, 2017:04). The prolonged gender discrepancy by granted residence permits has been a social phenomenon lacking national recognition in Sweden. This study reveals how large the gender discrepancy in Swedish migration is and how the opportunities for women are developing. A more detailed review of women’s opportunities by categories of residence permits between 2009 and 2017 reveals the deficiencies on gender disparity in Swedish migration and acknowledges the main causes. It is suggested by this study that the measured and identified indifferences are translated into women’s needs and provided with structural interventions to improve the currently existing conditions of the opportunities for women in Swedish migration. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to examine the importance of gender disparity by the opportunities for women in Swedish migration. The empirical research investigates women’s opportunities and development on obtained residence permits between the years 2009 and 2017. Method: This study is of inductive methodology using a grounded theory. The systematic collection of data and discovered patterns have been linked to theories of gender discrimination. Data: The used method is a cross-sectional study of more than one case with the interest of variation by the usage of quantifiable data and variables; the material is collected from the Swedish migration agency and sorted into 1,052,654 cases by gender, category of residence permits and year. Result: The result of this statistical research showed that Women are less likely to have a residence permit by all categories but one in Sweden. Over the past nine years women have been underrepresented by granted residence permits by each year and in total with 44.8% and the share is continuing to decrease. The study also revealed that the vast majority of migrants originated from developing and least developing countries where women are exposed to a considerably higher degree of gender discrimination. The gender discrepancy by obtained residence permits in Sweden is somewhat similar to the emigration in developing and least developing countries. As women outnumber men by 51.5% of the total immigration stock in industrial countries, in developing and least developing countries, women make up for only 45.6% of the total immigration stock. Gender discrimination is presumably the contributing factor to the gender discrepancy in Swedish migration. It is suggested by this study to implement structural interventions by increasing the share of the category family reunification in order to obtain an equal distribution of women and men by obtained residence permits.

Equality: Age and gender Abstract Diploma thesis addresses age and gender inequalities in Czechia, Denmark, France and Poland, based on Special Eurobarometer 437 and Special Eurobarometer 465. It introduces basic terms connected with inequality in society as well as terms related to gender and age discrimination. The analytical part is focused on different perceptions of age and gender inequality by respondents from four selected countries. The questions are also analysed on base on the respondent's gender and their age group, either 25-34, or 55-64 years. The conclusion of the conducted survey data analysis is, that society in Czechia and Poland inclines towards gender-based prejudices and stereotypes more, than society in Denmark and France, which may be a consequence of stronger emphasis on gender equality in Western European countries. Age discrimination is more often noticed by Czech and French respondents, but it is clear, that respondents from all four countries perceive ageism as very serious and do not see adopted anti- discrimination measures as sufficient. Key words: discrimination, inequality, stereotypes, ageing, ageism, age discrimination, gender discrimination, Czechia, Denmark, France, Poland

This thesis aims to study and compare gender discrimination in terms of son preferences in Kerala and Uttar Pradesh in India. It also aims to explain how son preferences appears in these states. This study uses Judith Butler’s (2007) and Yvonne Hirdman’s (2001) gender theories to explain the gender discrimination in the different states. Research shows that the son preference in India is strongly permeated in many parts of the country. This is mainly due to the deep-rooted patriarchal system that exists in India. The results show that this is particularly prominent in Uttar Pradesh than in Kerala. Previous research and the existing theories show that the strong son preferences that exists in the Indian society results in many women and young girls being discriminated. Through the gender perspective, this can be explained by the social constructions that are created in society. There are social and cultural norms and an unchanging cultural law that has been passed on for generations, where the roles of men and women in society are constructed and implemented. The social press on women, from both society and families to give birth to sons, leads to many devastating consequences and adversities for both women and young girls.

O presente trabalho tem por objetivo analisar a discriminação da mulher no mercado de trabalho por meio do estudo comparado da legislação brasileira e japonesa. Apesar das experiências políticas, econômicas, sociais e culturais diferentes, o Brasil e o Japão, assim como a maioria dos países (para não dizer todos), enfrentam a séria questão da discriminação de gênero. As mulheres sempre ocuparam um papel secundário na sociedade, que tem atribuído a elas a imagem de esposa do lar e mãe dedicada neste sistema familiar patriarcal. De fato, no que tange ao mercado de trabalho, este problema tem sido historicamente refletido na baixa participação das mulheres trabalhadoras, na diferença salarial, nas poucas mulheres em cargos de liderança e gerência, entre outras situações desvantajosas. Pode-se dizer que a mulher apenas passou a conquistar espaço e reconhecimento efetivamente no mercado de trabalho no século XX, especialmente a partir da ratificação por ambos os países da Convenção da ONU contra Todas as Formas de Discriminação contra a Mulher (CEDAW). Essa dissertação explora o modo como o Direito Brasileiro e o Japonês lidam com a temática da discriminação de gênero examinando os dispositivos legais sobre direitos trabalhistas da mulher, bem como a implementação de ações afirmativas e a adoção de meios eficazes de resolução de controvérsias. Finalmente, conclui-se por sugerir os próximos passos a serem seguidos para o atingimento da tão aguardada igualdade de gênero. / The present dissertation aims to analyze the discrimination against women in the labor market under the comparative study of the Brazilian and Japanese legislation. In spite of the different political, economic, social and cultural backgrounds, Brazil and Japan, like the vast majority of countries (not to say all of them), face the serious question of gender discrimination. Women have always occupied a secondary role in the society, which has attributed them the image of supporting housewife and caring mother in the male breadwinner family system. In fact, regarding the labor market, this problem has been historically reflected in low participation of women workers, wage gap, few women in leadership and management positions, among others disadvantage situations. It shall be said that the women only began effectively to conquer space and recognition in the labor market in the 20th century, especially since the ratification by both countries of the UN Convention against All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). This dissertation explores how Brazilian and Japanese Law deal with the gender discrimination issue by examining the legal provisions concerning womens labor rights, as well as the instruments created to improve their condition in the workplace, such as the implementation of positive action and the adoption of effective mean of resolution of controversies. Finally, it concludes by suggesting the next steps to be pursued towards the gender equality.

Gender discrimination, such as sexual harassment, sexual assault and inequitable treatment has long been considered a prominent issue on higher education campuses and is regulated under the Patsy Takemoto Mink Equal Opportunity in Education Act, commonly known as Title IX. Title IX is enforced by the Department of Education’s Office for Civil Rights (OCR) who responds to gender discrimination complaints on campus through investigations resulting in what are called OCR Resolution Letters. These letters define numerous policies and procedures Institutions of Higher Education (IHE) must put in place pertaining to the prevention of gender discrimination. This qualitative study looks specifically at the ways that gender discrimination on campuses of higher education was defined by the OCR from 1997-2011. The study explores the research questions (1) How have the types of conduct determined to be gender discrimination changed over time? (2) How have expectations of IHE responsibilities for gender discrimination issues changed over time? and (3) What gender discrimination issues have surfaced as priorities in the implementation of Title IX, as reflected in OCR resolution letters? Analysis of the letters using a social construction framework demonstrates that while the definitions of specific types of gender discrimination remained constant, the context in which they occur and the types of behaviors determined to be gender discrimination have both expanded in response to societal attitudes. The OCR tends to take the stance of being an ally vs. a punishing body when aiding IHEs in implementing Title IX; however IHE’s required investment in addressing the problem in both response and preventive measures has grown. Finally, OCR Resolution letters demonstrate that student on student interactions have been less common than faculty on student interactions. Implications for IHE practices and future research are discussed.

O presente trabalho tem por objetivo analisar a discriminação da mulher no mercado de trabalho por meio do estudo comparado da legislação brasileira e japonesa. Apesar das experiências políticas, econômicas, sociais e culturais diferentes, o Brasil e o Japão, assim como a maioria dos países (para não dizer todos), enfrentam a séria questão da discriminação de gênero. As mulheres sempre ocuparam um papel secundário na sociedade, que tem atribuído a elas a imagem de esposa do lar e mãe dedicada neste sistema familiar patriarcal. De fato, no que tange ao mercado de trabalho, este problema tem sido historicamente refletido na baixa participação das mulheres trabalhadoras, na diferença salarial, nas poucas mulheres em cargos de liderança e gerência, entre outras situações desvantajosas. Pode-se dizer que a mulher apenas passou a conquistar espaço e reconhecimento efetivamente no mercado de trabalho no século XX, especialmente a partir da ratificação por ambos os países da Convenção da ONU contra Todas as Formas de Discriminação contra a Mulher (CEDAW). Essa dissertação explora o modo como o Direito Brasileiro e o Japonês lidam com a temática da discriminação de gênero examinando os dispositivos legais sobre direitos trabalhistas da mulher, bem como a implementação de ações afirmativas e a adoção de meios eficazes de resolução de controvérsias. Finalmente, conclui-se por sugerir os próximos passos a serem seguidos para o atingimento da tão aguardada igualdade de gênero. / The present dissertation aims to analyze the discrimination against women in the labor market under the comparative study of the Brazilian and Japanese legislation. In spite of the different political, economic, social and cultural backgrounds, Brazil and Japan, like the vast majority of countries (not to say all of them), face the serious question of gender discrimination. Women have always occupied a secondary role in the society, which has attributed them the image of supporting housewife and caring mother in the male breadwinner family system. In fact, regarding the labor market, this problem has been historically reflected in low participation of women workers, wage gap, few women in leadership and management positions, among others disadvantage situations. It shall be said that the women only began effectively to conquer space and recognition in the labor market in the 20th century, especially since the ratification by both countries of the UN Convention against All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW). This dissertation explores how Brazilian and Japanese Law deal with the gender discrimination issue by examining the legal provisions concerning womens labor rights, as well as the instruments created to improve their condition in the workplace, such as the implementation of positive action and the adoption of effective mean of resolution of controversies. Finally, it concludes by suggesting the next steps to be pursued towards the gender equality.

nÃo hà / Este estudo compreende duas anÃlises para investigar alguns cenÃrios especÃficos sobre os rendimentos de trabalhadores brasileiros. A primeira trata de investigar os principais determinantes dos rendimentos dos filhos, dentre os quais a ocorrÃncia de transmissÃo das rendas dos pais. EstimaÃÃes de equaÃÃes de rendimentos com distintos procedimentos metodolÃgicos permitem captar o efeito transmissÃo (heranÃa familiar) e o efeito dinÃmico (anÃlise de geraÃÃes superpostas), cujas verificaÃÃes empÃricas sÃo baseadas nos dados da Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de DomicÃlios (PNAD) para os anos de 1989 e 2009. SÃo utilizados os mÃtodos de Heckman em dois estÃgios e o modelo de variÃveis instrumentais, haja vista a necessidade de correÃÃo do viÃs de seleÃÃo amostral e a endogeneidade presente em equaÃÃes de rendimentos. AlÃm destes, aplica-se o mÃtodo KleinâVella, por ser um procedimento corretivo para se obter o verdadeiro efeito mÃdio, e nÃo apenas um efeito para os indivÃduos que sÃo realmente afetados por variaÃÃes nos instrumentos. Em seguida, devido à impossibilidade de se obter contrafactuais perfeitos nos dados da PNAD, estimam-se regressÃes quantÃlicas no sentido de aumentar o grau de confiabilidade nas estimativas atravÃs da homogeneizaÃÃo dos trabalhadores na amostra por faixas de rendimento. Das alternativas metodolÃgicas, constatou-se que o mÃtodo de variÃveis instrumentais apresentou o pior ajuste preditivo. Quanto Ãs demais abordagens, suas estimativas nÃo permitiram concluir haver superioridade estatÃstica de uma sobre a outra para fins de inferÃncia. Portanto, pode-se concluir a partir destas que as rendas dos pais, principalmente a renda da mÃe, exercem um impacto positivo e significante de transmissÃo sobre as rendas dos seus filhos. Apesar da comprovaÃÃo do efeito de transmissÃo de renda, este se mostrou com tendÃncia declinante ao longo do tempo. A segunda anÃlise visa testar possÃveis diferenÃas de rendimentos por gÃnero em trÃs nÃveis regionais (Brasil, Nordeste e Sul-Sudeste) e quatro nÃveis ocupacionais (todas as ocupaÃÃes, dirigentes, serviÃos e tÃcnicos). Para tanto, foram avaliados trÃs enfoques metodolÃgicos para estimaÃÃes da equaÃÃo minceriana de rendimentos. Primeiramente avaliam-se os mÃtodos de MÃnimos Quadrados OrdinÃrios e de Heckman em dois estÃgios para corrigir o viÃs de seleÃÃo. Para testar a existÃncia de discriminaÃÃo por gÃnero no mercado de trabalho emprega-se o mÃtodo de Propensity Score Matching. Para inferir sobre tal discriminaÃÃo aplica-se o mÃtodo OaxacaâBlinder, o qual permite decompor as diferenÃas salariais devidas Ãs caracterÃsticas individuais (explicada) e à discriminaÃÃo (nÃo explicada). Independentemente do mÃtodo utilizado nas estimaÃÃes realizadas, comprova-se que existe diferenÃa salarial a favor dos homens, cuja superioridade varia de 36,32% (Dirigentes no Brasil) a 118,72% (TÃcnicos no Nordeste). AlÃm disso, conclui-se que tal diferenÃa à resultado da presenÃa de discriminaÃÃo por gÃnero, uma vez que, em todas as estimaÃÃes realizadas, o efeito da discriminaÃÃo, o qual varia de 100,5% (ServiÃos no Sul-Sudeste) a 153,8% (TÃcnicos no Brasil), à maior que a diferenÃa dos rendimentos, pois as mulheres tÃm, em mÃdia, atributos adquiridos (escolaridade, por exemplo) superiores aos dos homens. Portanto, caso nÃo houvesse discriminaÃÃo, hà evidÃncias na amostra utilizada de que os rendimentos das mulheres tenderiam a ser, em mÃdia, superiores aos dos homens.

Background: Today, women constitute about half of medical students. However, women are still underrepresented in prestigious specialties such as surgery. Some suggest that this could be explained by women being more oriented towards work-life balance. Aim: The overall aim of this dissertation was to explore aspects of gender in work-life priorities, career plans, clinical experiences and negotiations of professional ideals among medical students and newly graduated doctors, all in a Swedish setting. Method: We based the analysis on data from two different sources: an extensive questionnaire exploring gender and career plans among medical students (paper I-III) and interviews with newly graduated doctors (study IV). In paper I, four classes of first- and final-year medical (N=507, response rate 85%) answered an open-ended question about their future life, 60% were women. We conducted a mixed methods design where we analyzed the answers qualitatively to create categories that could be analyzed quantitatively in the second stage. In paper II, five classes of final-year medical students  were included (N = 372, response rate 89%), and 58% were women. We studied their specialty preference and how they rated the impact that the motivational factors had for their choice. In order to evaluate the independent impact of each motivational factor for specialty preference, we used logistic regression. In paper III, final-year medical students answered two open-ended questions: “Can you recall an event that made you interested of working with a certain specialty?” and “Can you recall an event that made you uninterested of working with a certain specialty?”. The response rate was 62% (N = 250),  and 58% were women. The analysis was similar to paper I, but here we focused on the qualitative results. In paper IV, thematic interviews were conducted in 2014 and 2015. We made a purposeful sampling of 15 junior doctors, including nine women and six men from eight different hospitals. Data collection and analysis was inspired by constructivist grounded theory methodology. Results: When looking at the work-life priorities of medical students and junior doctors it is clear that both men and women want more to life than work in their ideal future. The junior doctors renounced fully devoted and loyal ideal and presented a self-narrative where family and leisure was important to cope and stay empathic throughout their professional lives. The specialty preferences and the highly rated motives for choosing them were relatively gender neutral. However, the gender neutrality came to an end when the final-year medical students described clinical experiences that affected their specialty preference. Women were more often deterred by workplace cultures, whereas men were more often deterred by knowledge area, suggesting that it is a male privilege to choose a specialty according to interest. Among the newly graduated doctors, another male privilege seemed to be that men were able to pass more swiftly as real doctors, whereas the women experienced more dissonance between their self-understanding and being perceived as more junior and self-doubting. Conclusions: The career plans and work-life priorities of doctors-to-be were relatively gender neutral. Both female and male doctors, intended to balance work not only with a family but also with leisure. This challenges the health care system to establish more adaptive and flexible work conditions. Gender segregation in specialty choice is not the result of gender-dichotomized specialty preferences starting in medical school. This calls for a re-evaluation of the understanding where gender is seen as a mere background characteristic, priming women and men for different specialties.

The overarching aim of this essay is to understand why gender equality policy proposals sometimes fail to be adopted even in very favorable circumstances. The paper searches to do so by examining the political debate and the process that lead to the Swedish Social Democratic Party’s decision in 2014 to not adopt a law against gender discrimination in commercial in Sweden, despite their longstanding arguments to impose such a ban. The case is considered being a “failed case”, that is, a situation where gender policy adoption failed. Drawing on feminist political theory and frame analysis the study examines the arguments made by proponents and opponents in the debate. The study finds that the Liberal People’s Party possibly might have managed to pursue the Social Democratic Party to switch position by reframing the issue regarding gender discrimination in commercial. The study also observes that freedom of speech can be seen as a competing and higher valued interest to gender equality. Furthermore, the paper demonstrate that Sweden generally have been reluctant to reach gender equality through harder measures, which additionally can be seen as an explanation to the failure of the proposal.